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CHARLES DICKENS: THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES

In his lifetime Charles Dickens achieved a popularity we associate
nowadays with rock stars.  His works were international best-sellers,
and Dickens himself was in great demand:  he excelled as a speaker,
an actor-director of amateur theatricals, and a dramatic reader of
his own fiction.  At times Dickens' skill as a public performer
threatened to overshadow his writing career.  It was said that women
fainted by the dozens on hearing his narration of the murder scene
from Oliver Twist.  On the whole he gloried in recognition and strove
to be a crowd-pleaser.  He wrote novels in monthly, even weekly
installments, publishing them as newspaper serials.  His goal was to
satisfy the tastes and expectations of a mass audience.

Playing to an audience had both a good and bad effect on Dickens'
art.  On the one hand his works have had wide, lasting appeal.  On
the other, his urge to please sometimes made him overly sentimental:
once, anticipating audience demand, he even tacked on a happy ending.

What fueled Dickens' ambition?  Biographers have pointed to the
events of his childhood and youth, which reverberate throughout his
books, including A Tale of Two Cities.  He was fascinated by prisons,
the home, the ideal woman, dual personalities, and even violence.
All these concerns may be partly traced to Dickens' life; all play a
role in A Tale of Two Cities.

Born in 1812, in Portsmouth, England, Charles Dickens was a
sensitive, imaginative child.  He enjoyed his schoolwork and showed
promise; when a family crisis interrupted his studies he suffered an
emotional trauma.  Charles' father, John Dickens, was a hospitable
fellow who tended to outspend his modest, government clerk's salary.
After the family moved to London, John Dickens' excesses caught up
with him and he was arrested for debt and sent to prison.  His wife
and youngest children moved into prison with him, while Charles,
lodging nearby, went to work full time in a shoe-polish factory,
pasting labels on bottles.  He was twelve years old.  The job ended
within months, but Charles' memory of its humiliation never faded.
As an adult he hid the incident from all but one close friend; even
his wife remained in the dark.

Given Dickens' bent for concealing his own past, it's no accident
that secrets and mysterious life histories lie at the heart of A Tale
of Two Cities.  The famous prisons that loom in the novel may well be
by-products of young Charles' exposure to the debtors' prison.  As
for the blacking--or shoe-polish--factory, it must have struck the
impressionable boy as his own private jail.  A serious result of the
experience was Charles' growing resentment of his mother, who tried,
even after John Dickens' release, to keep her son on the job.  "I
never afterwards forgot," confided Dickens in a letter, years later.
"I never shall forget, I never can forget that my mother was warm for
my being sent back."

Dickens also never forgot any of his early troubles with women.  As a
rising young reporter in London he fell passionately in love with
Maria Beadnell, a girl from a prosperous, middle-class background.
Influenced by her parents, Maria rejected him.  Dickens was
devastated, and his enduring but limited conception of the ideal
woman began to take form.  In A Tale's Lucie Manette you'll meet the
typical Dickens heroine:  young, beautiful, submissive.

A self-taught shorthand reporter, Dickens worked his way into writing
for newspapers, and in the early 1830s began publishing fictional
sketches about London life.  In 1836 with the phenomenal success of
his second book, The Pickwick Papers, he was free to write full time.
A man of amazing energy, Dickens produced frequent novels and short
stories, edited the papers in which these appeared, and commented on
and dabbled in politics.  In the flush of Pickwick's success he
married, and soon had to cope with the demands of an ever-increasing
family.  By the mid-1850s Dickens' wife Catherine had given him ten
children--and Dickens was questioning his life's scheme.

"It was the best of times, it was the worst of times,..." The famous
opening sentence of A Tale of Two Cities describes the year 1775, but
Dickens might well have been characterizing his own era.  Victorian
England (1837-1901, the span of Queen Victoria's reign) was a society
of rapid change.  Dickens himself saw the coach system give way to a
railroad network, and England shift from a predominantly rural to an
urban, industrial society.  It was the best of times for aristocrats
and wealthy industrialists; it was surely the worst of times for the
urban poor, slum-dwellers who labored from childhood in sooty
factories.  These years also saw the rise of Victorian morality, with
its ideals of family life and puritan habits, even as prostitution
flourished and drunkenness grew to a national epidemic.

A self-made man acutely aware of his near working-class origins,
Dickens both battled prevailing trends and followed them.  He was
sensitive to the needs of the poor, yet delighted when he could
finally afford a country house and live like an upper-middle-class
gentleman.  Such works as Hard Times, David Copperfield, and Oliver
Twist had satirized or railed at contemporary social abuses, making
Dickens' popular reputation as a great reformer.

Yet a depression had settled on him.  He was feeling more and more
unsuited to Catherine.  The atmosphere darkens in the novels of the
1850s:  Bleak House, Hard Times, and Little Dorrit.  Readers during
these years missed the simpler pleasures and humor of The Pickwick
Papers.

A Tale of Two Cities ran between April and November 1859 in weekly
installments.  It was intended both to boost sales of Dickens' new
publishing venture, the journal All the Year Round, and as an
experiment in fiction.  Half the length of a usual Dickens novel, A
Tale depends on a swiftly moving, tightly resolved plot.  Dickens
deliberately avoided using his trademarks of eccentric dialogue,
elaborately drawn characters, and massive detail.  It's important to
keep in mind that A Tale is an historical novel, only the second one
Dickens wrote.  Dickens got the idea of drawing on the French
Revolution as background, and took much of A Tale's political
philosophy from The French Revolution, a popular history written by
his friend Thomas Carlyle (this is further discussed in this guide
under Sources).

Since it is set in another era, A Tale of Two Cities doesn't target a
specific problem of Dickens' own day.  As you read look for clues to
Dickens' attitude toward the common people he portrayed.  Readers of
A Tale have variously sketched Dickens as an out-and-out radical, a
conservative fearful of the mob, even as a man ignorant of politics.

The novel was also influenced by Dickens' domestic troubles.  In
1857, acting in a benefit performance of a play called The Frozen
Deep, Dickens was smitten with an 18-year-old cast member, Ellen
Ternan.  The infatuation served to complete Dickens' break with
Catherine.  Several years would pass, though, before Ellen became his
mistress.  By coincidence, The Frozen Deep supplied the important
renunciation theme we'll follow in A Tale.

Critics of the day gave mixed reviews to A Tale of Two Cities, but
the book was very popular and holds its place as one of Dickens' best
known.  Reading the novel today we note the author's artistry:  the
concisely constructed plot, the suggestive imagery and atmosphere,
the thrilling and horrifying scenes of revolutionary turmoil.  For
some readers the revolutionary scenes reflect Dickens' inner
demons--a fascination with violence, and ambivalence toward the
raging mob.  But for many other readers A Tale's intensity largely
reflects Dickens' storytelling genius.

Dickens lived only twelve more years after finishing A Tale of Two
Cities.  His next novel, Great Expectations, is a return to the
"Dickensian" mode--that is, it moves at a leisurely pace, boasts a
gallery of complicated characters, and is concerned with contemporary
social issues.  Great Expectations is biographical, dealing with a
young man's lessons in life.  Yet it shares some themes with A Tale
of Two Cities, these themes include prisons and the narrow division
between reality and unreality.

In his last years Dickens was nearly the property of his public.  His
lifelong love of theater enticed him into giving dramatic readings of
his own works.  Marathon touring, including an exhausting series of
performances in America, affected his already failing health.  In
1870, aged 58, Dickens died suddenly of a brain hemorrhage.  Though
he can no longer address us from a platform, Dickens still has the
power to move vast audiences.


A TALE OF TWO CITIES: THE PLOT

A Tale of Two Cities opens in the year 1775, with the narrator
comparing conditions in England and France, and foreshadowing the
coming French Revolution.  The first action is Jarvis Lorry's night
journey from London, where he serves as an agent for Tellson's Bank.
The next afternoon, in a Dover inn, Lorry meets with Lucie Manette, a
seventeen-year-old French orphan raised in England.  Lorry tells
Lucie that her father, the physician Alexandre Manette, is not dead
as she's always believed.  Dr.  Manette has just been released from
years of secret imprisonment in the Paris prison, the Bastille.

Lorry escorts Lucie across the English Channel to a house in a poor
Paris suburb where her father, in a dazed state from long solitary
confinement, confusedly works at the shoemaker's trade he learned in
prison.  Dr.  Manette has been taken care of by Ernest Defarge, a
former servant of the Manette family, now the keeper of a wine shop.
Defarge and his wife--a strong-looking, confident woman--appear to be
engaged in antigovernment activity.  Lucie is saddened by her
father's state and, resolving to restore him to himself, she and
Lorry carry the doctor back to England.

Five years pass.  In London, at Old Bailey (the courthouse) we meet
Charles Darnay, a French expatriate who is on trial for treason.
Lucie Manette and Jarvis Lorry both testify that they met Darnay on
their return trip across the Channel five years earlier.  John
Barsad, an English spy, swears that Darnay's purpose in traveling was
to plot treason against England.  Darnay is acquitted when his
lawyer, Stryver, shatters a witness' identification by pointing at
Darnay's uncanny resemblance to Sydney Carton--a brilliant but
dissolute lawyer who is wasting his talents in poorly paid servitude
to Stryver.

Lucie and her father--who has regained his faculties and returned to
medical practice--now live happily in a quiet corner of Soho with
Lucie's fiercely loyal companion, Miss Pross.  They are frequently
visited by Lorry (now a close family friend), Darnay, and Carton.
Lucie imagines hearing "hundreds of footsteps" thundering into her
life--a fantasy that in fact foreshadows the revolutionary strife in
France.

The scene shifts to France.  Driving in his carriage through the
streets of Paris, the cruel Marquis St.  Evremonde runs over and
kills a poor man's child.  We learn that the Marquis is Charles
Darnay's uncle (out of shame for his wicked male forebears, Darnay
had changed his name from St.  Evremonde to the English-sounding
Darnay).  Meeting the Marquis at the St.  Evremonde chateau, Darnay
says he will renounce the family property when he inherits to show
his disgust with the aristocracy.  St.  Evremonde expresses his hate
of his nephew, and his continued support of the old, unjust order.
The next morning the Marquis is found stabbed to death.  Gaspard, the
father of the boy the Marquis ran over, has killed him as an act of
vengeance.

Back in England again, Darnay becomes engaged to Lucie.  Sydney
Carton also declares his hopeless, lasting devotion to Lucie, and
vows he would give his life to save anyone dear to her.

John Barsad, now a spy for the French monarchy, tips off the Defarges
in Paris to the impending marriage of Lucie and Darnay.  Privately
and meaningfully, Monsieur Defarge comments that he hopes destiny
will keep Lucie's husband out of France.

The marriage ceremony, together with a story Darnay has told about
discovering hidden papers in a prison, send Dr.  Manette into
amnesiac shock.  For nine days, until Miss Pross and Jarvis Lorry
pull him out of it, he reverts to his former shoemaking habits.  We
learn later that on the wedding morning, Dr.  Manette secured
Darnay's promise not to reveal his true name--St.  Evremonde--to
anyone, not even Lucie.

Paris, 1789:  the French Revolution breaks out.  Defarge leads the
attack on the Bastille, while his wife marshals the revolutionary
women.  In the country rebellious peasants burn down the St.
Evremonde chateau.  Gabelle, the property's rent and tax collector,
is eventually arrested and thrown into Paris' L'Abbaye prison.
Rushing overseas, Darnay is at once seized by the revolutionaries as
an aristocrat, and flung into another prison, La Force.  Lucie, her
young daughter, Miss Pross, and Dr.  Manette rush to Darnay's aid,
lodging in Paris near Jarvis Lorry, who's there on business.

As an ex-Bastille prisoner, Dr.  Manette has sufficient influence to
visit his son-in-law in La Force, but he is unable to free Darnay.
For fifteen months Lucie stands each afternoon outside of La Force,
praying that Charles may catch a glimpse of her.  The Terror is in
full swing, the guillotine "shaving" innocent and aristocratic heads
alike.

At last Darnay is brought up before the French Tribunal.  He is
released through the testimony of Dr.  Manette and the long-suffering
Gabelle.  But the very night of his freedom the Defarges and "one
other" denounce Darnay.  On the spot, he is hauled back to the
Conciergerie, the scene of his trial.  Ignorant of the disaster, Miss
Pross and Jerry Cruncher, Lorry's jack-of-all-trades, go shopping for
provisions and encounter Miss Pross' long-lost brother, Solomon.
Cruncher recognizes Solomon as the spy-witness John Barsad who once
testified against Darnay.

Suddenly Sydney Carton is on the scene (he has come to Paris to help
his friends).  Leading Barsad off to Tellson's headquarters for a
meeting, Carton informs Jarvis Lorry that Darnay has been rearrested,
and forces Barsad to cooperate with him by threatening to reveal the
spy's turncoat maneuvers.  Currently in the pay of the
revolutionaries, Barsad's job is to spy on their prisoners, and so he
has access to Darnay in the Conciergerie.  Carton sets a secret plan
in motion, using Barsad.

Darnay's retrial the next morning produces a sensation.  A journal
discovered by Defarge in Dr.  Manette's old cell at the Bastille is
read aloud to the Tribunal.  In his journal Dr.  Manette blames his
arrest on two brothers of the St.  Evremonde family who had summoned
him to their country house to treat a young peasant wife the younger
St.  Evremonde had raped.  The woman's brother lay beyond treatment,
dying from a wound received when he tried to attack the rapist.
After both the brother and sister had died, Dr.  Manette received a
visit in his home from the elder St.  Evremonde's wife and her small
son, Charles Darnay.  The Marquise St.  Evremonde believed the dead
woman had a sister, and wished to make reparations to her.  Dr.
Manette attempted to reveal the St.  Evremonde brothers' infamy, but
they arranged for him to be arrested and put in jail.  Dr.  Manette
ended his story with a curse on the whole St.  Evremonde clan, and
hid the document in a hole in the chimney.  On this evidence Charles
Darnay is condemned for his ancestors' evil deeds, and is sentenced
to die in 24 hours.

After the verdict, Sydney Carton, drinking in the Defarge wine shop,
overhears Madame Defarge announce that she is the missing sister, the
last survivor of the family exterminated by the St.  Evremondes.  She
swears to complete her vengeance by wiping out all of Darnay's
relations--Lucie, her little girl, and even Dr.  Manette himself.
Carton goes to Jarvis Lorry's lodgings where both men receive Dr.
Manette, who, from the shock of Charles' condemnation has again
slipped into his amnesiac-shoemaker role.  Carton warns Lorry of
Madame Defarge's murderous intentions, and they plan an escape from
the country.  Carton tells Lorry to keep the proper papers ready, and
when Carton appears at two the next afternoon, all--including Lucie
and her child--will ride swiftly away.

The following day, Carton enters Darnay's cell, drugs him, and
exchanges clothes with him.  Carton intends to take Darnay's place on
the guillotine, and thus fulfill his old promise to give his life for
anyone dear to Lucie.  As agreed, Barsad hurries Darnay's unconscious
body--dressed as Carton--out of the Conciergerie to the coach where
Jarvis Lorry's party awaits.  All flee successfully.

In the meantime Miss Pross, alone in the Manette apartment, has a
grim meeting with Madame Defarge, who has come armed with pistol and
knife to take her personal revenge.  There is a struggle and the
pistol fires, killing Madame Defarge and forever deafening Miss
Pross.  Nonetheless, she is able to meet Jerry Cruncher as they have
planned, and escape.

Sydney Carton goes to the guillotine with dignity.  (For the first
time Madame Defarge's ringside seat is vacant.) He comforts a little
seamstress, has a final vision of better times ahead, and reflects:
"It is a far, far better thing that I do, than I have ever done; it
is a far, far better rest that I go to than I have ever known."

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: TIME SEQUENCE

The series of events related in A Tale of Two Cities begins 18 years
before the novel opens.  Through flashbacks and narrations, Dickens
eventually reveals these earlier events, weaving them into the
ongoing action.  Here is a chronological reconstruction of the
complete story.  Book and chapter references are given in
parentheses.

DECEMBER 1757 Dr.  Manette is recruited by the St.  Evremonde
brothers to treat a raped young woman and her wounded, dying brother.
Attempting to publicize what he has witnessed, the doctor is
imprisoned (III, 10).

DECEMBER 1767 Dr.  Manette writes a journal account of his sufferings
and hides it in his Bastille cell (III, 10).

NOVEMBER 1775 Released to the care of Ernest Defarge, the doctor
remains in a confused state.  His daughter, Lucie, and the banker
Jarvis Lorry carry him to London (I, 1-6).

MARCH 1780 Charles Darnay tried and acquitted of treason at the Old
Bailey court in London (II, 2-4).

JULY 1780 Peaceful Sunday at the Manettes' Soho residence.  Lucie
hears "hundreds of footsteps," signalling the approach of revolution
in France (II, 6).

SUMMER 1780 Driving in his carriage, Charles Darnay's uncle the
Marquis St.  Evremonde runs over and kills Gaspard's child.  In the
morning, St.  Evremonde is found dead (II, 7-9).

SUMMER 1781 Darnay and Stryver announce hopes of marrying Lucie.
Carton swears love to her (II, 10-13).  Roger Cly's funeral.  Jerry
Cruncher attempts to rob Cly's grave, but finds it empty (II, 14).
In France the Defarges learn that Gaspard has been hanged.  John
Barsad appears as spy for the French monarchy (II, 15-16).

1781 Lucie and Darnay marry; Dr.  Manette lapses into amnesia (II,
17-19).

1783  Birth of little Lucie (II, 21).

JULY 14, 1789 Storming of the Bastille; Defarge searches Dr.
Manette's old cell.  Start of French Revolution (II, 21).

JULY 1789  Peasants burn St. Evremonde chateau (II, 23).

AUGUST 1792  Darnay's return to France, and imprisonment in Paris (II, 24).

SEPTEMBER 1792 September Massacres.  Lucie and her father arrive in
Paris; Dr.  Manette's influence protects Darnay from death at the
hands of the mob (III, 2-4).

DECEMBER 1793 Darnay tried and acquitted at La Conciergerie (III, 6);
Darnay rearrested same night, through Defarge's influence (III, 7).
John Barsad revealed as Solomon Pross, Miss Pross' missing brother;
Sydney Carton exposes him as spy of the Revolutionary prisons and
blackmails him into helping Carton (III, 8).  Darnay's second trial;
evidence from Dr.  Manette's journal condemns him to die (III, 9-10).
Carton takes Darnay's place in La Conciergerie; Darnay party flees
France (III, 13).  Madame Defarge killed; Miss Pross deafened (III,
14).  Carton dies on guillotine (III, 15).

Keep in mind that Dickens was experimenting in A Tale of Two Cities.
He hoped to reveal character through events in the story, rather than
by dialogue.  He attempted to comment on French history by creating
not only individuals but characters who seem to stand for entire
social classes.  The little mender of roads, a common man thrust into
Revolutionary excesses, is one example; Monseigneur, whose
chocolate-drinking requires the services of four strong men, is
another.

One of the great caricaturists of his age, Dickens often found his
talent hard to suppress.  Remember Dickens' penchant for exaggeration
when you meet Miss Pross (with her phenomenal bonnet like a Stilton
cheese) and spiky-haired Jerry Cruncher.  These characters may not
strike you as conventionally realistic, but think again.  Are they
meant to be just like you and me?  Some readers feel that the simpler
characters, set in the framework of a dense plot, express Dickens'
sense of the complexity of life.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: LUCIE MANETTE (DARNAY)

One way you may approach Lucie Manette is as the central figure of
the novel.  Think about the many ways she affects her fellow
characters.  Although she is not responsible for liberating her
father, Dr.  Manette, from the Bastille, Lucie is the agent who
restores his damaged psyche through unselfish love and devotion.  She
maintains a calm, restful atmosphere in their Soho lodgings,
attracting suitors (Charles Darnay, Stryver, Sydney Carton) and
brightening the life of family friend Jarvis Lorry.

Home is Lucie's chosen territory, where she displays her fireside
virtues of tranquility, fidelity, and motherhood.  It's as a symbol
of home that her centrality and influence are greatest.  Even her
physical attributes promote domestic happiness:  her blonde hair is a
"golden thread" binding her father to health and sanity, weaving a
fulfilling life for her eventual husband, Charles Darnay, and their
daughter.

Lucie is central, too, in the sense that she's caught in several
triangles--the most obvious one involving Carton and Darnay.  Lucie
marries Darnay (he's upcoming and handsome, the romantic lead) and
exerts great influence on Carton.

A second, subtler triangle involves Lucie, her father, and Charles
Darnay.  The two men share an ambiguous relationship.  Because Lucie
loves Darnay, Dr.  Manette must love him, too.  Yet Darnay belongs to
the St.  Evremonde family, cause of the doctor's long imprisonment,
and is thus subject to his undying curse.  Apart from his ancestry,
Darnay poses the threat, by marrying Lucie, of replacing Dr.  Manette
in her affections.

At the very end of the novel you'll find Lucie caught in a third
triangle--the struggle between Miss Pross and Madame Defarge.  Miss
Pross, fighting for Lucie, is fighting above all for love.  Her
triumph over Madame Defarge is a triumph over chaos and vengeance.

Let's move now from Lucie's influence on other characters to Lucie
herself.  Sydney Carton, who loves Lucie devotedly, labels her a
"little golden doll." Carton means this ironically--he's hiding his
true feelings from Stryver--but some readers have taken his words at
face value.  They see Lucie as a cardboard creation, and her
prettiness and family devotion as general traits, fitting Dickens'
notions of the ideal woman.

Readers fascinated with Dickens' life have traced Lucie's origins to
Ellen Ternan, the 18-year-old actress Dickens was infatuated with
while writing A Tale.  Ellen was blonde, and she shared Lucie's habit
of worriedly knitting her brows.  Of course, the artist who draws on
real life nearly always transforms it into something else, something
original.

Finally, consider viewing Lucie allegorically--as a character acting
on a level beyond the actual events of the story.  Dickens frequently
mentions Lucie's golden hair.  The theme of light versus dark is one
that runs all through A Tale, and Lucie's fair hair seems to ally her
with the forces of light.  The force of dark seems to come from
Lucie's opposite in most respects, the brunette Madame Defarge.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: SYDNEY CARTON

Sydney Carton dies on the guillotine to spare Charles Darnay.  How
you interpret Carton's sacrifice--positively or negatively--will
affect your judgment of his character, and of Dickens' entire work.

Some readers take the positive view that Carton's act is a triumph of
individual love over the mob hatred of the Revolution.  Carton and
the seamstress he comforts meet their deaths with great dignity.  In
fulfilling his old promise to Lucie, Carton attains peace; those
watching see "the peacefullest man's face ever beheld" at the
guillotine.  In a prophetic vision, the former "jackal" glimpses a
better world rising out of the ashes of revolution, and long life for
Lucie and her family--made possible by his sacrifice.

This argument also links Carton's death with Christian sacrifice and
love.  When Carton makes his decision to die, the New Testament verse
beginning "I am the Resurrection and the Life" nearly becomes his
theme song.  The words are repeated a last time at the moment Carton
dies.  In what sense may we see Carton's dying in Darnay's place as
Christ-like?  It wipes away his sin, just as Christ's death washed
clean man's accumulated sins.

For readers who choose the negative view, Carton's death seems an act
of giving up.  These readers point out that Stryver's jackal has
little to lose.  Never useful or happy, Carton has already succumbed
to the depression eating away at him.  In the midst of a promising
youth, Carton had "followed his father to the grave"--that is, he's
already dead in spirit.  For such a man, physical death would seem no
sacrifice, but a welcome relief.

Some readers even go so far as to claim that Carton's happy vision of
the future at the novel's close is out of place with his overall
gloominess.  According to this interpretation, the bright prophecies
of better times ahead are basically Dickens' way of copping out, of
pleasing his audience with a hopeful ending.

If Sydney Carton's motives seem complicated to you, try stepping back
and viewing him as a man, rather than an influence on the story.
He's a complex, realistic character.  We see him so clearly, working
early morning hours on Stryver's business, padding between table and
punch bowl in his headdress of sopping towels, that we're able to
feel for him.  Have you ever known someone who's thrown away his
talent or potential, yet retains a spark of achievement, as well as
people's sympathy?  That's one way of looking at Sydney Carton.

Dickens adds an extra dimension to Carton's portrait by giving him a
"double," Charles Darnay.  For some readers, Carton is the more
memorable half of the Carton/Darnay pair.  They argue that Dickens
found it easier to create a sympathetic bad character than an
interesting good one.  Carton's own feelings toward his look-alike
waver between admiration and hostility.  But see this for yourself,
by noticing Carton's rudeness to Darnay after the Old Bailey trial.
When Darnay has gone, Carton studies his image in a mirror, realizing
that the young Frenchman is everything he might have been--and
therefore a worthy object of hatred.

It's interesting that both Carton and Darnay can function in two
cultures, English and French.  Darnay, miserable in France, becomes a
happy French teacher in England.  In a kind of reversal, Carton, a
lowly jackal in London, immortalizes himself in Paris.

Carton and Darnay have one further similarity--the doubles may
represent separate aspects of Dickens.  If we see Darnay as Dickens'
light side, then Carton corresponds to an inner darkness.  The
unhappy lawyer is a man of prodigious intelligence gone to waste, a
man who fears he'll never find happiness.  These concerns mirror
Dickens' own worries about the direction his career was taking in the
late 1850s, and about his disintegrating marriage.  It's been
suggested that Dickens, though a spectacularly successful writer, had
no set place in the rigid English class system.  Regarded from this
perspective, Dickens, like Carton, was a social outsider.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHARLES DARNAY

Charles Darnay has many functions:  he holds a place in the story, in
Dickens' scheme of history, and in Dickens' life.  We can view him on
the surface as A Tale of Two Cities' romantic lead.  We can also look
for depth, starting at Darnay's name.

St.  Evremonde is Darnay's real name.  He is French by birth, and
English by preference, and emerges as a bicultural Everyman.  He's a
common, decent person, caught in circumstances beyond his control.
Darnay isn't merely caught in the Revolution, he's pulled by it, as
if by a magnet.  He's at the mercy of fate.

Besides fate, a leading theme, Darnay illustrates a second concern of
the novel:  renunciation or sacrifice.  He gives up his estate in
France, substituting for his old privileges the very unaristocratic
ideal of work.  Darnay's political liberalism and decision to earn
his own living (tutoring young Englishmen in French language and
literature) put him in conflict with his uncle, the Marquis St.
Evremonde.  If you've ever disagreed with a member of your own
family, multiply your differences by ten and you'll understand the
relationship between Charles Darnay and his uncle.  The two men live
in different philosophical worlds.  Young Darnay signals the new,
progressive order (though you'll see that he's never tagged a
revolutionary); the older Marquis sticks to the old, wicked ways.

The resemblance between Darnay and Sydney Carton is so marked that it
saves Darnay's life at two critical junctures.  As we've seen, the
two men are doubles.  For many readers, they form halves of a whole
personality.  Darnay is sunny and hopeful, representing the chance
for happiness in life; Carton is depressed and despairing.  Both
characters compete for Lucie Manette, and both enact the novel's
all-important theme of resurrection.  If we think of Darnay, saved
twice by Carton's intervention, as the resurrectee, then Carton
becomes the resurrector.  (As you'll recall, Carton in fact dies
imagining himself "the Resurrection and the Life.")

Many readers have noted that "Charles Dickens" and "Charles Darnay"
are similar names, and they view Darnay as the bright,
forward-looking side of Dickens, the hero.  Though he undergoes trial
and imprisonment, Darnay ultimately gets the girl and leads a long,
blissful life.  He has a pronounced capacity for domestic happiness,
something Dickens yearned for.

There's also been debate over whether Darnay is a fully realized
character or just a handsome puppet.  You'll have to reach your own
conclusions about Darnay, of course.  In doing so, take into account
that Dickens intended his plot to define character, and was working
in a limited space--A Tale of Two Cities is one of his shortest
novels.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: DR. ALEXANDRE MANETTE

Dr.  Manette's release from the Bastille after 18 years of solitary
confinement sounds the first note in the theme of resurrection, and
sets Dickens' plot in motion.  The secret papers left in Manette's
cell lead directly to A Tale's climax, Charles Darnay's sentence to
die.

Does the doctor seem believable, a man of psychological depth?  To
support a yes answer, look at Dickens' rendering of a white-haired
man, just released from his living tomb, whose face reflects "scared,
blank wonder." As the story continues, Dr.  Manette's spells of
amnesia feel authentic.  Doesn't it seem natural that Dr.  Manette
returns to shoemaking--the task that preserved his sanity in the
Bastille--whenever he's reminded of that dark period of his life?

Less believable for some readers is the journal Dr.  Manette composes
in blood and haste, and hides in his cell.  These readers find the
doctor's journal long and melodramatic, and point to the dying
peasant boy, gasping a vengeful monologue, as an instance of realism
being sacrificed to drama.

From the point of view of the French Revolutionaries, Dr.  Manette is
a living reminder of their oppression.  They revere him for his
sufferings as a Bastille prisoner.  During Darnay's imprisonment in
Paris, Dr.  Manette uses the Revolutionaries' esteem to keep his
son-in-law alive.  As a result, you watch him grow stronger,
regaining the sense of purpose he'd lost in the Bastille.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: JARVIS LORRY

All through the story Jarvis Lorry protests that he's nothing more or
less than a man of business.  "Feelings!" he exclaims, "I have no
time for them." Mr.  Lorry's time belongs to Tellson's bank, "the
House," his employer for over 40 years.  Yet behind his allegiance to
business, Lorry hides a kind heart.  When Dr.  Manette responds to
Lucie's marriage by falling into an amnesiac spell, Lorry deserts
Tellson's for nine full days to look after his friend.

How closely does Lorry conform to modern ideas about bankers and
businessmen?  He admittedly values the bank above himself, an
attitude you might consider old fashioned.  Readers have described
him as the sort of clerk Dickens saw passing in his own day, and
mourned.  Lorry compares favorably with the two other men of business
in the story:  Stryver, the pushing lawyer, and Jerry Cruncher, the
"honest tradesman" who digs up bodies and sells them to medical
science.

During the Revolution Tellson's in London becomes a haven for
emigrant French aristocrats, the same aristocrats found guilty, a few
chapters earlier, of squeezing their peasants dry.  How should you
view Tellson's for sheltering an oppressing class?  (Dickens has
already revealed that the cramped, dark bank resists change of any
sort.) More to the point, how should you judge Jarvis Lorry for
dedicating his life to such an establishment?  Readers have suggested
that Dickens, despite his liberal politics, found the solidity of
institutions like Tellson's appealing; the old bank and its banker,
Jarvis Lorry, represent a kind of bastion against the new, aggressive
ways of men like Stryver--and against the frenzied violence of the
French mob.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: MADAME DEFARGE

Dickens is famous for tagging his characters with a habit, trait, or
turn of phrase.  Just as Jarvis Lorry's constant catchword is
"business," so Madame Defarge's defining activity is knitting.
Madame knits a register of those she's marked for death, come the
revolution.  This hobby links her closely with the novel's theme of
fate.  By referring to myth, we may interpret her as one of the
Fates--the Greek goddesses who first spin the thread of human life,
and then cut it off.  But it's not necessary to go beyond the story
for other equivalents to Madame Defarge's fast-moving fingers.
Dickens implicitly contrasts her ominous craft with Lucie Manette's
"golden thread," or blonde hair.  Lucie weaves a pattern of love and
light, holding her family together, while Madame Defarge never knits
a sweater, only death.

Occupying relatively little space in the novel, Madame Defarge has
nonetheless been called its most memorable character.  She and her
husband have a curiously modern air.  Perhaps you can imagine the
Defarges by picturing today's guerrilla fighters in embattled
underdeveloped countries.  Madame Defarge is a professional who knows
how to use political indoctrination.  On a fieldtrip to Versailles
with the little mender of roads she identifies the dressed-up
nobility as "dolls and birds." She's teaching the mender of roads to
recognize his future prey.

As you read, try seeing Madame Defarge as neither political force nor
mythic figure, but as a human being.  Her malignant sense of being
wronged by the St.  Evremondes turns her almost--but not quite--into
a machine of vengeance.  Dickens inserts details to humanize her:
she is sensitive to cold; when the spy John Barsad enters her shop,
she nods with "a stern kind of coquetry"; at the very end of the
book, making tracks for Lucie's apartment, she strides with "the
supple freedom" of a woman who has grown up on the beach.  Do you
think such "personal" touches make Therese Defarge less terrifying,
since she's so clearly human?  Or does she seem more nightmarish,
because, violent and vengeful, she's one of us?

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: MONSIEUR DEFARGE

Keeper of the wine shop in Saint Antoine, leader of the attack on the
Bastille, Defarge is a man of divided loyalties.  He owes allegiance
to 1.  Dr.  Manette, his old master; 2.  the ideals of the
Revolution; 3.  his wife, Therese.  A strong, forceful character with
natural authority, Defarge can for a time serve three masters.

There's no conflict of interest between taking in Dr.  Manette after
his release from the Bastille and furthering the Revolution.  Defarge
actually displays his confused charge to members of the Jacquerie--a
group of radical peasants--as an object lesson in government evil.

Only when Revolutionary fervor surges out of bounds are Defarge's
triple loyalties tested.  He refuses to aid Charles Darnay--Dr.
Manette's son-in-law--when Darnay is seized as an aristocrat; by now
the orders are coming from Defarge's bloodthirsty wife.  Goaded by
Madame, Defarge ends by denouncing Darnay and providing the evidence
(ironically, in Dr.  Manette's name) needed to condemn him.  Defarge
stops just short of denouncing Dr.  Manette and Lucie, too, but there
are hints from Madame and friends that he'd better start toeing the
line.

Dickens leaves us with the thought that, finally, Defarge is
controlled by a force more powerful than politics, or even his wife.
In Sydney Carton's last vision, Defarge and Madame Defarge perish by
the guillotine.  Is it fate, irony, or historic inevitability that
kills them?  You decide.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: MISS PROSS

Eccentric, mannish-looking Miss Pross is a type of character familiar
to readers of Dickens' novels.  Beneath her wild red hair and
outrageous bonnet, she's as good as gold, a fiercely loyal servant.
Dickens places Miss Pross in the plot by means of her long-lost
brother.  Solomon Pross is revealed to be John Barsad, Old Bailey spy
and "sheep of the prisons."

Miss Pross' two defining characteristics are her devotion to Lucie
and Solomon, and her stalwart Britishness.  When Madame Defarge
marches in, armed, to execute Lucie and her family, Miss Pross
understands the Frenchwoman's intent--but not a word she says.  Miss
Pross has refused to learn French.

Miss Pross' blind patriotism and devotion work to her advantage.
She's empowered by love.  Mistaking Miss Pross' tears of resolve for
weakness, Madame Defarge moves toward a closed door, and in a heated
struggle is shot by her own pistol.  A Tale of Two Cities isn't
markedly anti-France or pro-England, but Miss Pross' victory may
strike you as a victory for her country, too.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: STRYVER

Dickens dislikes Stryver.  You may be hard put to find a single
lovable feature in this "shouldering" lawyer, who has been "driving
and living" ever since his school days with Sydney Carton.  Yet the
ambitious Stryver--his name a neat summing up of the man--is making
his way in the world.  With little talent for law, he pays the doomed
but brilliant Carton to do his work for him.  For the Stryvers of
society, ambition and unscrupulousness count far more than skill.
Dickens' Stryver is one of the new men of industrialized Victorian
England.  Abhorring his progress in real life, Dickens renders him
the butt of jokes and scorn in the novel:  Stryver's three adopted
sons, though not of his flesh and blood, seem tainted by the mere
connection.

Dickens' portrayal of Stryver as the man we love to hate seems rather
one-sided.  Does this make him a more memorable creation, or of
limited interest?  Notice how sharply Stryver is drawn in individual
scenes--during his midnight work sessions with Carton, and in his
conferences with Lorry about marrying Lucie.  But once Lucie is
married, and Darnay returns to France, Stryver drops out of the
story.  His role as the object of Dickens' satire is at an end.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: JERRY CRUNCHER

For some readers, spiky-haired Jerry Cruncher supplies an element of
humor in an otherwise serious novel.  Other readers claim that the
Cockney odd-job man who beats his wife for "flopping" (praying) isn't
a particularly funny fellow.  Cruncher's after hours work is digging
up newly buried bodies and selling them to surgeons, which may not
seem a subject for comedy.  But it does contribute, in two important
ways, to A Tale's development.

Cruncher's grave robbing graphically illustrates the theme of
resurrection:  he literally raises people from the dead.  (Victorian
grave robbers were in fact nicknamed "resurrection men.")

One of the plot's biggest surprises hinges on Cruncher's failed
attempt to unearth the body of Roger Cly, the spy who testified with
John Barsad against Charles Darnay.  In France, years after his
graveyard expedition, Cruncher discloses that Cly's coffin contained
only stones and dirt.  This information enables Sydney Carton to
force Barsad, Cly's partner, into a plot to save Charles Darnay's
life.

As for Cruncher's moral character, a brush with Revolutionary terror
reforms him.  He promises to make amends for his former "honest
trade" by turning undertaker, burying the dead instead of raising
them.  In the last, tense pages of the novel, Cruncher's vow, "never
no more will I interfere with Mrs.  Cruncher's flopping," finally
strikes a humorous chord.  It's darkly comic relief.


A TALE OF TWO CITIES: SETTING

A Tale of Two Cities takes place in England and France, largely
London and Paris.  The narrative starts in November 1775, but the
actual events of the story begin in December 1757 with Dr.  Manette's
imprisonment in the Bastille.  The action closes in December 1793
when Lucie Darnay and her party successfully flee France.

The historical background is the French Revolution.  From page one,
it approaches unstoppably.  Once revolution breaks out, the action
shifts to France and remains there for the duration of the novel.
Which of the two cities--London or Paris--makes the stronger
impression?  You don't have to be familiar with Paris or its history
to get a concrete sense of the city's revolutionary atmosphere.
London, by contrast, may seem to fade out of the novel.  With the
exception of the crowd following Roger Cly's tomb, you might have
trouble singling out an incident of London street life.  Perhaps it's
Dickens' handling of time that puts the emphasis on Paris.  Book the
Third covers only 15 months in a time scheme of 26 years.  Yet that
entire part of the novel takes place in France, mainly in strife-torn
Paris.  The emotion-charged events serve to make the setting
memorable.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: THEMES

Some of the main themes of A Tale of Two Cities are listed below.
Notice that some themes form contrasting pairs, forces in conflict.
Dickens never declares outright which force triumphs.  You must
decide, weighing the accumulated evidence of the story.

1. RESURRECTION

The idea of being "recalled to life" penetrates every aspect of the
novel.  Characters "recalled" from either a symbolic or impending
death include Dr.  Manette, Charles Darnay, and, in an ironic way,
Roger Cly.  Jerry Cruncher, "resurrection man," brings the dead back
into this world in a grisly way; Lucie Manette, gently restoring her
father's memory, brings the doctor back in a loving way.

In your own reading you may find Sydney Carton the most striking
example of this theme.  Dying in order to save Charles Darnay, Carton
becomes the "Resurrection and the Life."

2. SACRIFICE (RENUNCIATION)

If we accept Carton's death as the greatest sacrifice in the novel,
we can't overlook its connection with the theme of resurrection.
Actually, Carton makes a double sacrifice.  Long before he gave up
his life, he renounced all claims to Lucie Manette.  Would you
consider it a great sacrifice to give up the person who might be your
one chance for worldly happiness?

Other important sacrifices are made by Charles Darnay, Dr.  Manette,
and Miss Pross, who loses her hearing for Lucie's sake.

3. FATE

In A Tale of Two Cities the sweep of history and the flow of everyday
life seem beyond individual control.  Society's collective excesses,
the greed and selfishness of the French aristocracy, bring about a
revolution.  As you read, be alert for correspondences between
individual evil, and cruelty on a large scale.  The unjust
imprisonment of Dr.  Manette by the St.  Evremondes leads directly to
the unjust imprisonment of Charles Darnay by the people.  You'll
notice that aristocratic oppression both causes and resembles the
Revolutionary Terror.

4. LIGHT/DARK

The world of the novel seems naturally to divide into the forces of
light and dark, or good and evil.  Look for golden-haired Lucie
Manette to lead the forces of light.  She's a radiant angel, a golden
thread weaving happiness into the lives of her loved ones.  Darkness
and shadows have unpleasant associations with threats and death.
Note the gloom surrounding prisons, hangings (Gaspard's dangling
corpse casts a shadow), and Madame Defarge and company.

5. REALITY/UNREALITY

Throughout the story characters question whether they're awake or
dreaming.  Sometimes it's hard to decide which state is preferable.
Both reality and unreality have drawbacks.  The Farmer-General, a
cruel oppressor, is certainly real, and the grim Paris slums are the
genuine article.

For its part, unreality is the haunt of ghosts and spirits.  Dickens
tells us plainly that unreality pervades Monseigneur's court, symbol
of the old, wicked regime.  Dreams, fog, and sleep--closely related
to unreality--are the conditions most like death.  The doomed
aristocrats Darnay meets in La Force are described as "Ghosts all!"

6. DOUBLES

The doubles you're most likely to spot at once are Charles Darnay and
Sydney Carton.  Yet the novel is filled with pairs:  the St.
Evremonde twins; the little mender of roads/the wood sawyer; Jerry
Cruncher and young Jerry.

If you contrast Darnay's generally hopeful outlook with Carton's
pessimism, the two men appear to represent the light and dark aspects
of life.  Not all of the pairs, however, are opposites.  Young Jerry
seems a perfect miniature of his father, spiky hair and all.

Dickens uses repeated images of mirrors to support the theme of
doubles.  When you look in a mirror, you are in a sense seeing your
double.  For instance, watch Sydney Carton studying his own face in a
mirror.  The image he sees is Darnay's.

7. LOVE/HATE

Several of A Tale's characters are endowed with the force of love.
Observe Lucie Manette, whose "golden thread" of love symbolically
encircles her family.  And notice Miss Pross, aided by love in her
struggle with Madame Defarge.  Finally, think about the motivation
for Sydney Carton's great sacrifice.  In order to give up his life,
he first had to love someone--Lucie--more than himself.

Love may be said to triumph in the end:  Lucie and her party escape,
and Sydney Carton has a vision of a better world to come.  But
consider the costs--Miss Pross loses her hearing, and Carton gives up
his life.

Hate and its byproduct, vengeance, control the actions of Madame
Defarge, The Vengeance, Jacques Three, and the faceless, slaughtering
mob.  To a lesser extent, Ernest Defarge also seems ruled by hate.
On one hand, Carton's dying vision indicates that hate and vengeance
have lost a round.  On the other hand, Dickens uses his last chapter
to point to the lessons of history.  Crush humanity out of its
natural shape, he says, and hate, evil, and violence result.

8. DEATH

Death seems to go hand in hand with resurrection.  Carton has to die
in order for Darnay to live.  Some readers believe that Dickens
displays an obsession with death.  As evidence, these readers cite
Dickens' vivid description of capital punishment and scenes of
Revolutionary violence.  These readers also single out Sydney Carton
to support their argument.  They suggest that Carton has a secret
yearning for death and oblivion, reflecting similar feelings held by
Dickens.

9. PRISONS

A looming presence in the book, prisons in England and France are
linked with darkness, death, and unreality.  Think about the fact
that every major character either spends time in or grows familiar
with a prison.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: STYLE

Dickens wrote A Tale of Two Cities in brief, weekly installments.
Not surprisingly, the limitations of time and space affected his
usual style.  Because the action is so compressed, and the subject
matter so serious, A Tale contains less dialogue, humor, and detailed
characterization than the typical Dickens novel.  Even so, it has
stylistic qualities we think of as "Dickensian," and it makes some
stylistic breakthroughs.

1. USE OF DETAIL

Dickens' details have sometimes been labeled "unnecessary." Note that
Miss Pross' bonnet is not only like a "Grenadier wooden measure," but
like a "great Stilton cheese." Dickens also inserts extended
description in the very midst of an action:  recall the "gaunt pier
glass" standing behind Lucie Manette in the Dover inn.  One effect of
these techniques is the creation of texture.  After reading Dickens'
descriptions, it's easy to imagine just how a person or landscape
looks.

2. REPETITION/PARALLELISM

Frequent repetition of detail, dialogue, and bits of description
creates a strong atmosphere.  Often the repetition comes in the form
of a parallel construction:  remember the "best of times, worst of
times" paragraph?

One way Dickens establishes character is by means of repeated traits.
Nine times out of ten, Stryver is depicted "shouldering." As for
Madame Defarge, her sinister style with knitting needles may change
your entire conception of the hobby.

3. THEATRICAL/MELODRAMATIC QUALITY

Dickens was an avid theatergoer, and at the time of writing A Tale
had begun giving public readings.  Some of the novel's best and worst
stylistic aspects--vivid imagery, heavy melodrama--reflect the fact
that Dickens had performance in mind.  Consider Lucie's first meeting
with her father, and read the journal Dr.  Manette hid in his
Bastille cell.  You'll notice repetitive speeches, unconvincing
dialogue, and supercharged emotions.  Though unlikely to show up on a
modern stage, these elements show the influence of sentimental
Victorian drama.

4. PATTERNS OF IMAGERY

The novel is marked by patterns of imagery that create its special
atmosphere and combine with the major themes:  the equation of blood
with wine, the use of mirrors, and the depiction of water are among
the best-developed examples.  All are discussed fully in the Story
section.

5. MOTION PICTURE TECHNIQUE

Dickens' extensive use of images makes his style a visual one.  If
you're a movie buff, you may notice some points in common with film
technique.  The storming of the Bastille is described by means of
rapid images, suggesting associated ideas:  "flashing weapons,
blazing torches, smoking wagonloads of wet straw...  shrieks,
volleys, execrations...." Filmmakers call this technique montage.

6. PERSONIFICATION

Throughout his story Dickens lends human qualities to inanimate
objects or concepts:  Hunger, Saint Antoine, and The Vengeance are a
few examples.  As you read, consider how personification helps
illustrate moral points, and contributes to the atmosphere.

7. LANGUAGE OF THE FRENCH PEOPLE

Writing in English, Dickens must put convincing dialogue into the
mouths of native French speakers.  How does he solve the problem?  By
literally translating French expressions and sentence structure.
Depending on your tastes, the result may seem a bit stilted, or
provide just the right "foreign" accent.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: POINT OF VIEW

The story is told nearly entirely in the third person, by a narrator
who has French history and the layout of 18th-century London at his
fingertips.  He tells us what each character is feeling and thinking,
and shifts from the consciousness of one person to another almost at
will.  Technically speaking, he's an omniscient and intrusive
narrator.  This means he's ever-present, leading us into moral
judgments about history, people, and social practices.

In a few instances the narrator takes a first-person point of view.
As "I" or "we," he comments in a personal, introspective way on human
nature.  One result is to draw us into the fear and excitement of the
Darnay party's escape from France.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: FORM AND STRUCTURE

Dickens' own ideas about content, plus exterior requirements,
dictated the form of his novel.

1. A TALE AS EXPERIMENT

Departing from his usual leisurely approach to storytelling, Dickens
tries to develop character through a fast-moving plot.  The actions
are meant to speak louder than the dialogue.  As a result, the novel
is tied to its complex plot, and much space is needed simply to tell
the story.

2. LONDON AND PARIS

Hoping to contrast two great cities, Dickens shifts the action
between London and Paris.  For many readers the Paris sections are
more memorable.  Perhaps, having expertly evoked London in other
novels, Dickens wanted to concentrate on new territory.

3. WEEKLY INSTALLMENTS

Dickens had to publish A Tale in weekly serial form.  He sought to
attract and hold a large audience.  Reflecting these requirements,
nearly all of A Tale's chapters contain action or plot information,
and end unresolved, or with a "hook." How do you react to being left
dangling at the end of each chapter?  Some readers enjoy being drawn
in by Dickens' skillfully applied suspense.  Others, while
recognizing the artistry involved, may feel their emotions are being
manipulated.

4. COINCIDENCE

As you read, count the number of major coincidences in the plot.
Your response to the novel may depend on whether or not you can
accept, for example, Ernest Defarge turning up whenever a
Revolutionary leader is needed.  Your hardest task may be swallowing
the several coincidences that occur in III, 8.  Dickens defended his
use of this device.  He felt, given a properly developed atmosphere,
that coincidences were natural, even inevitable.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: SOURCES

Two very different works were the main influences on A Tale of Two
Cities.  In his preface Dickens credits The Frozen Deep, a melodrama
by his friend Wilkie Collins, and The French Revolution, a famous
history by another friend, Thomas Carlyle.  Drawing inspiration from
others doesn't mean that Dickens copied or plagiarized.  His own
fertile imagination and ability to fuse ideas and select details
produced an original, moving novel.

Staged by Dickens, friends, and family as an amateur theatrical, The
Frozen Deep centers on a triangle.  Two young men, both members of an
arctic expedition, love the same woman; one gives up his life so the
other may enjoy happiness with her.  Here is the germ of Sydney
Carton's renunciation of Lucie, and his final sacrifice.

At Thomas Carlyle's instructions, Dickens read through two cartloads
of scholarly tomes on the French Revolution.  Yet for his novel he
returned again and again to Carlyle's "wonderful book." The contrast
between reality and unreality owes something to Carlyle, as does the
thesis of Sydney Carton's final vision:  a new, better age will rise
from the ashes of the old.

Among the characters with roots in Carlyle's account are Ernest
Defarge, who seems to be a composite of several leaders, and Dr.
Manette, who was suggested by an actual, pathetic letter discovered
in a cell of the Bastille.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 1

Here is Dickens' voice, introducing the story he's about to tell.  No
action or characters are presented, but the scene is set:  England
and France, 1775.  We encounter important themes--and one of the most
unforgettable opening paragraphs in English literature.

NOTE:  AN INSTANCE OF PARALLELISM "It was the best of times, it was
the worst of times...," the opening words, form a good example of
parallelism--the repetition, for emphasis, of a grammatical
structure.  Here and elsewhere Dickens relies on parallelism to
balance opposing pairs, to make contrasts and comparisons.  Look
closely for dual themes and characters, even (in Book the Second) for
dual chapter titles.  Most elements in the story have, if not an
equal, at least an opposing element.

With a description of a brutal punishment carried out on a French
boy, Dickens leads in to two major themes:  Fate and Death.  Each is
personified--given human identity--a trick of style Dickens will be
using again and again.  The "certain moveable framework" for which
trees have already sprung up is the guillotine; at the moment, the
sinister-sounding "tumbrils of the Revolution" are merely farm carts.
The basis for their future employment, carrying the doomed through
the streets of Paris, has already been laid by an unjust and ignorant
society.

Dickens' tone for describing abuses is ironic, but indignant, too.
Clearly, he doesn't believe that a murdering highwayman shoots
"gallantly," but he does view the hangman as "ever worse than
useless." Few of Dickens' contemporaries despised capital punishment
as much as he did; fewer describe it so vividly.  What's your
reaction to the executions detailed here?  Dickens himself was both
fascinated and repelled by death, and generations of readers have
found his attitude catching.

NOTE:  TOPICAL/HISTORICAL REFERENCES The two kings with "large jaws"
and their queens, one fair, one plain, are the monarchs of England
and France:  George III and Charlotte Sophia; Louis XVI and Marie
Antoinette, respectively.

The references to visions, spirits, and spectres mark the beginning
of a deliberate pattern.  Mrs.  Southcott was a religious visionary;
the "Cock-lane ghost" was an 18th-century poltergeist.  Moving ahead
to his own time, Dickens invokes the "spirits of this very year last
past," meaning those spirits raised by D.  D.  Home, a popular
Victorian medium.

These historic ghosts will give way to fictional ones.  As you read,
look for the mist likened to "an evil spirit" (Book I, Chapter 2),
and for the "spectre" of Jarvis Lorry's nightmare (I, 3)--the image
is of Dr.  Manette, raised from the "death" of solitary imprisonment.
References to the spirit world span the entire novel.  The ghosts are
here for a reason.

If you've heard many ghost stories you know that they create a weird,
unreal atmosphere--exactly the effect Dickens was aiming for in A
Tale.  His spirits and spectres hint at the possibility of another
world, of life beyond death.  They're images that support two of the
novel's themes:  unreality versus reality, and--more
important--resurrection.

Finally, a reference perhaps familiar from your history classes:  the
"congress of British subjects in America" describes the Continental
Congress, which sent a petition of grievances to the British
Parliament in January 1775.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 2

We meet Jarvis Lorry, employee of Tellson's Bank in London, traveling
by mail coach from London to Dover.  This is only the first of many
fateful journeys--the story also ends with one.  Dark, cold, and mist
surround the heavy mail coach.  The atmosphere is gloomy,
foreshadowing more gloom to come and setting us up for the
contrasting theme of dark and light.

The atmosphere among passengers, guard, and coachman matches the
weather--all fear an assault by highwaymen, and so mistrust each
other.  Their apprehension quickens at the sudden arrival of a
messenger.  The messenger is Jerry Cruncher, sent from Tellson's with
instructions for Lorry:  "Wait at Dover for Mam'selle." Lorry's
prompt reply, RECALLED TO LIFE, surprises Cruncher as much as his
fellow travelers.

Left alone in thickening mist and darkness, Cruncher hoarsely
exclaims that he'd be "in a Blazing bad way, if recalling to life was
to come into fashion...!" Here is Dickens' first mention of
resurrection, and first of many strong signals of Cruncher's hidden
occupation.  Though the action so far seems bathed in secrecy,
Dickens doesn't write for the sake of confusing us.  He's constantly
and skillfully divulging plot, themes, and moral point of view; we
have only to look out for them.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 3

Heading back to London, Jerry Cruncher stops at alehouses on the way,
made uneasy by the night shadows and Lorry's strange message.  The
mail coach meanwhile bumps on to Dover, as Lorry dozes on and off
through his own disturbing dreams.  His present errand for Tellson's
strikes him as digging someone out of a grave, and it inspires
nightmare dialogues with a white-haired spectre.

"I hope you care to live?" Lorry twice asks his spectre.  The answer:
"I can't say."

The rising sun jolts the bank clerk awake, dispersing the night's bad
dreams.  Yet a seed has been planted in Jarvis Lorry's mind:  being
recalled to life, or resurrected, may not be an entirely blessed
event.  Still, the opposite of life is dismaying, as the beautiful
sunlight reminds Lorry:  "Eighteen years!" he cries.  "To be buried
alive for eighteen years!"

NOTE:  A SHIFT IN VOICE The lead paragraph of Chapter 3 is one of a
very few times in the novel that Dickens changes his narrative voice.
What does he gain from using "I," the first-person singular?

"I" commands attention.  We note there's a break in the action, and
concentrate on the meditative interjection that follows.

"I" is also a suitable persona for stepping back and commenting in
general on what's been happening.  Dickens as "I" philosophizes over
the "wonderful fact" that human beings are basically mysteries to
each other.  "My friend is dead," he says, meaning, imagine I've lost
a friend.  Whether she's living or dead, her innermost personality
remains secret; we can't break down the barriers of our
individuality.

How does this insight relate to the story?  Dickens applies it
specifically to the passengers in the mail coach, all equally
mysterious to each other.  Yet characters throughout the novel hide
secrets and memories, which even their loved ones can't decipher:
Dr.  Manette is one such character, Charles Darnay is another.  Even
Jarvis Lorry has something to reveal, as we learn in the next
chapter.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 4

At a Dover inn, having shed his heavy overcoat, Jarvis Lorry proves
to be about 60 years old.  He's carefully dressed (if a little vain)
and self-controlled, though his eyes hint that a lively spirit
remains unquenched by long service to Tellson's.

Jarvis Lorry passes the day walking on Dover beach.  It is evidently
a smuggler's haunt, which adds to the air of secrecy.  Lorry awaits
the arrival from London of Lucie Manette, a 17-year-old orphan and
ward of Tellson's.  When Lucie appears, Lorry is struck by her beauty
and resemblance to the child whom, 15 years earlier, he carried
across the Channel on a similar errand for Tellson's.  Suddenly
uncomfortable, he drops a formal bow, gazing into a depressingly
ornate mirror behind Lucie.

In a roundabout fashion, over protests that he is only a man of
business, the bank clerk reveals Lucie's past.  After her mother
died, Lorry did indeed fetch little Lucie across the Channel.  Now
word has come that Lucie's father, Dr.  Manette of Beauvais, is not
dead as everyone had believed.  The doctor has just been released
from 18 years of secret imprisonment in the Bastille, and now remains
in the care of an old servant in Paris.  Lorry has been dispatched by
Tellson's to identify his former client, and to escort Lucie to her
father.

"I am going to see his ghost!" exclaims Lucie.  Like Jarvis Lorry she
imagines her father as a spectre.  Unlike Lorry she responds by
falling into a swoon.  As you'll discover, Lucie tends to faint in
moments of crisis.  Dickens seems genuinely to have agreed with his
Victorian readers that a proper heroine should be beautiful, good,
and extremely sensitive.  Perhaps you may think that Lucie could use
a few coarse touches of humanity, but Dickens intends her to
represent an ideal.

Miss Pross, Lucie's brawny, red-haired companion, flies to her aid.
Loyalty and eccentricity are Miss Pross' two sides.  We don't
identify with her, but thanks to Dickens' wonderfully detailed
description of her bonnet "like a Grenadier wooden measure," Miss
Pross stays with us.

NOTE:  A CRUEL "PRIVILEGE" Jarvis Lorry suggests that Dr.  Manette
was imprisoned through a compatriot's "privilege of filling up blank
forms." Such forms, called lettres de cachet in French, were
arbitrary warrants of imprisonment.  Powerful French nobles
supposedly could obtain them for use against enemies or offending
members of their own families.  In Dr.  Manette's case, the fear that
he was indeed jailed by noble influence, and may still be in danger,
has led to Tellson's and Lorry's policy of secrecy.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 5

We're in Paris, at a wine shop in the poverty-stricken suburb of
Saint Antoine.  A large cask of wine has broken and the people rush
into the street to gulp any drops they can catch.  It's no riot,
nothing that would make the evening news these days, but it
prefigures major themes and events, including riots, that form
Dickens' portrait of the French Revolution.

The spilled wine stains hands, faces, kerchiefs, and the pavement
red.  Its similarity to another red substance is spelled out by a
tall fellow in a nightcap, a "tigerish smear" about his mouth, who
dips a finger in the wine and jokingly scrawls "Blood." The joker is
Gaspard, a minor character we'll meet again.  He's reproached by
Monsieur Defarge, the keeper of the wine shop, who asks:  "Is
there...  no other place to write such words in?" In meaningful
answer, Defarge places a hand on the tall man's heart.  To the
well-built, resolute Defarge, blood is no joke.

Try to keep the images and incidents of this chapter in mind.  Now,
the spilled wine turns into a harmless game, ending in drinking and
dancing.  Eighteen years ahead, we'll see a much less innocent dance.
Saint Antoine residents will be stomping the frenzied Carmagnole,
with blood instead of wine staining their hands and faces.

Pay attention, too, to Dickens' way of evoking the poverty and misery
of the quarter.  Today the poor are "scarecrows," clad in rags and
nightcaps, but soon they'll menace the "birds, fine of song and
feather"--the oppressing nobles.  Again we're faced with gloom--even
the lit streetlamps are "a feeble grove of dim wicks." These very
lamps are destined to be used to hang men.  At first glance you may
find Dickens' description a bit long and repetitive, but bear with
him.  Not a detail is wasted; people and things (note those tools and
weapons "in a flourishing condition") are brought in to build
atmosphere and prepare us for what is to come.

Entering the wine shop with Defarge, we meet his wife, Madame
Defarge.  She is a strong-featured woman of iron composure, busy at
her trademark activity, knitting.  Also present are Jarvis Lorry and
Lucie Manette, and three wine drinkers.  The drinkers and Defarge
exchange the name "Jacques," a kind of password demonstrating that
they're against the existing order.  Defarge directs the three men to
an adjoining building.  Then, after a brief conference, Defarge leads
Lorry and Lucie up a dark, filthy staircase to Dr.  Manette's room.
Lucie trembles at meeting her father, who according to Defarge is
very confused and changed.

The trio of Jacques are busily peering into Dr.  Manette's room.
Defarge waves them away, admitting that he shows his charge to those
"whom the sight is likely to do good," that is, to fellow
revolutionists.  Defarge, Lorry, and Lucie step into the dark garret
where a white-haired Dr.  Manette stoops over a bench, absorbed in
making shoes.

NOTE:  A PERSONIFICATION Dickens strengthens our sense of the
crushing poverty of Saint Antoine by personifying "Hunger" in
paragraph 6.  Given lifelike attributes, Hunger "pushes," "stares,"
"starts," and "rattles." By the time Hunger is "shred into atomies,"
we're hungry.

We've seen personification before (Woodman Fate and Farmer Death in
Chapter 1).  It crops up elsewhere in this chapter--Saint Antoine is
a "he"--and throughout the novel.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 6

Fallen into a black mist of forgetfulness, Dr.  Manette can't recall
his name.  Like a modern political prisoner, he responds only to a
number:  "One Hundred and Five, North Tower," the location of his
prison cell.  Shoemaking provided his psychological crutch in prison,
and though he's free, the doctor still pursues his trade
compulsively.

Dr.  Manette's emotional meeting with his daughter Lucie has drawn
fire from many readers.  They point to Lucie's repetitions of "weep
for it, weep for it" as sheer theatrical corniness.  This scene does
read like a melodramatic play:  father and daughter exchange
speeches, father tears his hair in a frenzy, daughter rocks him on
her breast "like a child." Corny by our standards?  You judge.  There
are readers who suggest that Dickens was lifting from a highly
respected source.  Shakespeare staged a similar scene in King
Lear--the reunion between the old, mad king and his faithful daughter
Cordelia.

Lucie, who has inherited her mother's golden hair, looks familiar to
Dr.  Manette.  She doesn't succeed in restoring his memory, but does
introduce the light half of Dickens' light-dark theme.  Lucie's an
"angel," whose "radiant" hair is compared to "the light of freedom."
After Defarge and Lorry leave to make traveling arrangements, she
watches with her father until "a light gleamed through the chinks in
the wall."

Only Madame Defarge, silently knitting, observes Lucie, Dr.  Manette,
and Lorry leaving Paris.  It is a second night journey for Jarvis
Lorry, who is reminded of his old inquiry to the spectre:  "I hope
you care to be recalled to life?" Lorry hears the echo of his old
answer, "I can't say," and Book I ends on a note of uncertainty.
Lorry wonders, and the reader wonders, too, if the doctor will ever
regain his faculties.

NOTE:  By entitling Book I "Recalled to Life," and repeating Jarvis
Lorry's dialogue with the spectre, Dickens has made one issue clear:
Dr.  Manette, the buried man dug out alive, is a symbol of
resurrection.  This issue raises rather than resolves other points.
By now you're probably asking yourself if resurrection is necessarily
a good thing.  Can the past be blocked out, and a person long buried
truly return to life?  Dickens wants us to speculate on these
matters, which he explores more fully in Books II and III.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 1

The year is 1780.  Dickens gives us a view of Tellson's Bank and
reintroduces the Bank's odd-job man, Jerry Cruncher, whose first
appearance was on horseback, delivering a message to Jarvis Lorry.

Tellson's is small, dark, and ugly.  It has always been so and,
Dickens satirically suggests, its partners would disinherit their
sons before renovating.  A description of the bank's inconvenience
and location--beside Temple Bar, where the heads of executed traitors
are displayed--leads to a denunciation of the death penalty, "a
recipe much in vogue."

We watch Jerry Cruncher waking up in his small apartment.  Already
bad humored, Cruncher catches his wife praying--or "flopping," as he
calls it--and heaves a muddy boot at her.  Cruncher believes Mrs.
Cruncher's continual flopping is interfering with his profits as an
honest tradesman.  This "trade," yet unnamed, occupies Cruncher late
at night.  It has given him a permanent chest cold, and deposits iron
rust on his fingers.

Cruncher and his son, young Jerry--a spiky-haired miniature of his
father--proceed to Tellson's, where Cruncher is at once called on to
deliver a message.  Young Jerry holds down the fort, a backless chair
outside the bank, wondering why his father's fingers are always
rusty.

NOTE:  AN IRONIC METAPHOR Dickens describes Jerry Cruncher's baptism
as "the youthful occasion of his renouncing by proxy the works of
darkness." This description may stop you a moment, since the Jerry
portrayed so far seems markedly antireligious.  He hounds his wife
for "flopping," and by night engages in a secret, possibly
disreputable, trade.  In truth, Cruncher seems quite comfortable with
"the works of darkness," a tip-off that Dickens' metaphor is
ironic--it implies the opposite of what is said.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 2

Jerry Cruncher is sent to the Old Bailey (the court) to be on hand in
case Jarvis Lorry, there attending a trial, needs a messenger.

The morning's case is treason, a crime carrying the awful punishment
of quartering, that is, being tortured and then literally chopped
into quarters.  Fascinated by the almost certain doom of the
defendant, spectators jam the courtroom.  Cruncher squeezes through
them in order to signal Lorry, seated among "gentlemen in
wigs"--judges and lawyers.  Near Lorry sits the prisoner's lawyer,
and "one wigged gentleman who looked at the ceiling." This mysterious
fellow with his studiedly casual air is Sydney Carton, who plays a
decisive role in the next chapter's action.

The jailers lead in the accused, Charles Darnay.  Young, handsome,
gentlemanly looking, Darnay attracts all eyes; the ghoulish crowd
mentally hangs, beheads, and quarters him.  Darnay is charged with
traveling between England and France for the purpose of informing
Louis XVI ("the French Lewis") about the strength of British troops
earmarked for North America.  (Remember, it's 1780.  The American
Revolution against England is in full swing, aided by the French.  If
Darnay was in fact reporting British troop movements to the French,
wouldn't he indeed qualify as a spy?)

Darnay faces the judge bravely, flinching only when he catches his
reflection in the mirror above his head.  In the midst of a nervous
gesture he notices Dr.  Manette and Lucie sitting on the judge's
bench.  His stare sets the spectators whispering about this
white-haired man and lovely young lady.  "Who are they?"

An answering whisper seems to contradict Lucie Manette's look of
"engrossing terror and compassion." She and her father are identified
as witnesses against the handsome prisoner.

By now you'll have noticed that Dickens ends each chapter with a hook
or teaser, something to pull readers in.  A Tale of Two Cities was
published in weekly installments, and Dickens' sales depended on his
ability to sustain suspense.

At the end of this chapter, when the prosecutor rises to "hammer the
nails into the scaffold," we realize that it's Charles Darnay's
scaffold.  Most readers, both fearing and fascinated by the prospect
of death, will keep turning the pages.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 3

The account of Charles Darnay's trial is written in several styles,
reflecting Dickens' attitude toward each character and toward legal
proceedings in general.  A one-time law clerk, he loved to deflate
puffed-up terminology and traditions.

The opening speech made by the Attorney-General (the prosecutor) is
pompous and long winded, typically bureaucratic.  According to the
Attorney-General, his two leading witnesses are men of shining
character and patriotism.  Are we to believe this?  The
Attorney-General's exaggerated tone tells us to take his speech with
a grain of salt.

John Barsad, the first witness, is called.  He releases "his noble
bosom of its burden" but can't escape a cross-examination from
Darnay's lawyer.  Dickens' masterly use of satire raises serious
doubts about the nobility of Barsad's bosom.  A few sharp questions
from Darnay's lawyer (soon introduced as Stryver) do the trick.

Barsad soon emerges as a debtor and card cheat who has forced his
friendship on Charles Darnay.  Though he vigorously denies it, Barsad
appears to be a government spy, paid to entrap others.  Given
Dickens' unfavorable portrait of Barsad, how do you think the author
felt about government spying?

Stryver also damages the credibility of Roger Cly, the state's second
witness.  Cly, Darnay's servant, is shown to be a thief and a pal of
Barsad.  Stryver suggests that the two men conspired to plant
incriminating papers on the defendant.

Next on the witness stand is Jarvis Lorry, who admits to meeting
Darnay in November 1775 on a packet-ship returning from France.  On
board with Lorry were Dr.  Manette and Lucie, who are both called as
witnesses.

Lucie's testimony betrays her affection for Charles Darnay but
doesn't help his cause.  She reveals that he was traveling under an
assumed name, and engaged in "delicate" business with two Frenchmen
who got off the ship before it left shore.

As for Dr.  Manette, he remembers nothing of the journey.  We see him
now as a vigorous man, restored to his faculties.  Yet the doctor's
mind remains blank from the time he was making shoes in prison to the
moment he recovered and found himself living in London.

A "singular circumstance" arises as the state tries to prove that
Charles Darnay rode in the same mail coach as Jarvis Lorry, sharing
the journey that opened the novel.  The state claims that Darnay
disembarked before Dover and backtracked to a military garrison to
gather information on the British army.  Just as a witness identifies
Darnay as the right man, a note passes between the seemingly
nonchalant Carton and Stryver, shivering this part of the case "to
useless timber." Carton has noticed that he and Darnay are doubles,
almost perfect look-alikes.  Faced with two such similar men in the
same courtroom, the witness can't make a positive identification.

In his final argument Stryver again emphasizes how Darnay was framed
by Barsad and Cly.  The lawyer points out that Darnay often crosses
to France on family matters he can't disclose.  Notice the skillful
way that Dickens, while unraveling the mystery of Charles Darnay's
imprisonment, spins yet another thread of suspense.  What are
Darnay's family matters?  Why is he forbidden "even for his life" to
reveal them?  In a novel as meticulously plotted as this one, you can
look forward to learning the secret of Darnay's family.

The Attorney-General finishes his closing argument and the jury
begins deliberations.  Sydney Carton gazes carelessly at the ceiling,
but, somehow, the sight of Lucie Manette fainting doesn't escape him.
He orders an officer to carry her out, and assures Darnay, awaiting
his verdict in the prisoners' dock, that Lucie feels better.  This
first encounter between Carton and Darnay, men so alike they could be
twins, isn't exactly brotherly.  What do you make of Carton's manner,
"so careless as to be almost insolent"?  On the one hand, Carton
looks so disrespectable that even Jerry Cruncher--who's no
gentleman--distrusts him.  On the other hand, Carton's quick action
at spotting the mutual likeness and alerting Stryver has just ruined
the strongest part of the state's case.  Carton is a man of
contrasts, well-suited to a story of contrasts; you'll have many more
opportunities to judge his character.

The verdict comes back:  acquitted!  Lorry scrawls the single word on
a piece of paper and hands it, for swift delivery, to Jerry Cruncher.

"If you had sent the message, 'Recalled to life,' again," mutters
Cruncher, "I should have known what you meant, this time." Cruncher's
response ties Charles Darnay into the theme of resurrection, first
stated by Dr.  Manette's release from the Bastille.  Darnay, too, has
been "recalled to life," largely through the agency of Sydney Carton.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 4

Dr.  Manette, Lucie, Stryver, and Lorry gather around to congratulate
Charles Darnay, giving us a closeup view of characters only glimpsed
in the courtroom.  Dr.  Manette, though "intellectual" and "upright,"
still displays symptoms of his prison ordeal.  Only Lucie can charm
away his dark moods.  Dickens likens her to a "golden thread" uniting
her father to the time before and after his misery.  Indeed, "The
Golden Thread" title of Book II signifies tranquility and domestic
peace.  It soothes Dr.  Manette's "black brooding," and yet, as Book
II progresses, will be threatened by other dark forces.  As the story
continues, watch for explicit contrasts between light and dark.

A swift, on-target sketch of the lawyer Stryver--he's "stout, loud,
red, bluff, and free from any drawback of delicacy"--is followed by
an uncomfortable exchange between Lorry and Carton.  The heart of the
chapter, though, is the second meeting between the doubles.

NOTE:  You can read Carton's evident hostility toward Darnay as
jealousy, self-pity, drunkenness, or a combination of the three.  Yet
keep in mind that no one but Stryver knows of Carton's role in saving
Darnay's life; Carton himself doesn't mention it.  Carton's actions,
good and bad, ultimately lead to his great sacrifice at the end of
the novel.  You'll be constantly reevaluating your feelings toward
Carton.  He's an outsider, a drunk, a man who pities himself, yet he
has a firm grip on our sympathy.

When Darnay leaves him, Carton, half-drunk, goes to a mirror and
studies his reflection.  This is the third time Dickens has lingered
on a mirror.  One hung in the courtroom above Charles Darnay, another
stood behind Lucie Manette at the Dover inn.  Mirrors have multiple
meanings in A Tale; they may express unreality, self-division,
ghosts, the past, death, and dreams.  (The mirror above Darnay in the
Old Bailey had stored up reflections of "crowds of the wicked and the
wretched," all of them dead.)

On one level, the mirror Carton stares into, distractedly, shows his
close resemblance to Darnay.  The two men are such "mirror images"
that Darnay, previously left alone with his "double of coarse
deportment," felt himself in a dream.  Yet the mirror also shows
Carton what he might have been, and occasionally is:  a man like
Darnay.  In this way it expresses Carton's sense of the two different
sides of his nature.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 5

We zero in on the relationship between Stryver and Carton, learning
that the apparently lazy Carton is the secret behind Stryver's legal
success.  It is Carton the "jackal" who extracts the essence from
stacks of legal documents and prepares it for Stryver.

What motivates Carton to do another man's hack work, to serve as his
jackal?  At this point our only answer is that Carton has always been
this way.  Have you known students who do homework for others while
neglecting their own assignments?  This has been Carton's practice
ever since he was a schoolboy.

Darnay's release is a triumph for Stryver.  Carton, however, responds
with such gloom that Stryver remarks on it, and then offers a toast
to Lucie Manette, "the pretty witness."

"A golden-haired doll," answers Carton.  This may remind you of a
small boy trying to deny a crush.  Some readers have latched on to
the words "golden-haired doll" as a telling assessment of Lucie's
personality.  Do you think Carton really means what he says--or, as
Stryver hints, is he only trying to conceal his dawning interest in
Lucie?

The chapter ends with Carton descending from Stryver's lodgings into
a cold, overcast dawn.  For a moment the jackal sees "a mirage of
honourable ambition, self-denial, and perseverance." But the vision
evaporates, and once home Carton rests his head on a pillow "wet with
wasted tears." Our impression of Carton is evolving, from a
ne'er-do-well to a struggling man:  unsure, unhappy, divided against
himself.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 6

This chapter sets up a contrast between domestic tranquility and
impending fate.  Dickens' notion of the ideal home is here
represented by the Manette's quiet corner house in Soho.  Lucie has
enlivened her surroundings with a French flair for interior
decoration and skill at attracting company.  Frequent visitors
include Jarvis Lorry, now a faithful family friend; Sydney Carton;
and Charles Darnay, who was released four months ago.  The ideal home
is also represented by Miss Pross, Lucie's eccentric, devoted
servant.  Steadfastly British (at the end of Chapter 3 she refused to
cross the Channel), Miss Pross' only visible flaw is an unstinting
loyalty to her black-sheep brother, Solomon.  He has speculated away
all his sister's money, and vanished.

But fate--a force larger than life--intrudes into the place that
Lucie and her father have carved out for themselves.

The chapter title "Hundreds of People" refers on one level to echoes
from the street adjoining the Manettes' house.  "Hundreds" is also
Miss Pross' estimate--a jealous exaggeration--of the many visitors
for her "Ladybird," Lucie.  For Lucie herself, the echoes from the
street are ominous, heralds of "all the footsteps that are coming
by-and-by into our lives."

The thunder and lightning of the late-night storm strike a menacing
note into the peaceful Sunday gathering of the Manettes, Lorry,
Darnay, and Carton.

Charles Darnay's reference to a message written by a prisoner in the
Tower of London, and later found crumbled to dust, turns Dr.  Manette
pale.  We know that the doctor keeps his shoemaking tools handy in
his bedroom--their presence signifies how easily his mind can slip
back into "its old prison," the past.

The closing paragraph is obvious foreshadowing.  The next chapter
shifts us to France, giving an idea of where the "great crowd of
people with its rush and roar," will come from.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 7

The key words in this chapter, which takes us across the Channel, are
"reality" and "unreality."

Unreality is the note pervading the reception of Monseigneur, "one of
the great lords in power at the Court." Monseigneur's rooms are
gorgeous, but "not a sound business" when compared with the nearby
slums.  Monseigneur's guests consist of ignorant military officers,
loose-living priests, and Unbelieving Philosophers.  In short,
they're fakes, people of high position but few credentials.

The most solid citizen in attendance, the person who does exactly
what his title announces, is the Farmer-General.  He has bought the
right to collect taxes for Monseigneur, a position granting unlimited
license to steal from the peasantry.  Historians consider the
Farmer-General system one of the abuses that helped cause the French
Revolution; it makes sense that Dickens, laying groundwork for the
strife to come, mentions it.

Can you list Monseigneur's character traits?  For many readers, such
individual traits are missing.  They find Monseigneur the
personification of an entire class, a symbol for the ruling nobility.
Thinking along the same lines, other readers believe that Monsieur
the Marquis, introduced as he leaves Monseigneur's rooms in disfavor,
personifies the French rural gentry.  Let's check this interpretation
of the Marquis against his actual behavior.

The Marquis orders his coach driven recklessly through the streets of
Paris, an abuse of power consistent with his social position.  A
child is run over and killed, and, with typically aristocratic scorn,
the Marquis tosses a gold coin to the grieving father.  He is
Gaspard, the tall man we last saw smearing the word BLOOD on a Saint
Antoine wall.

When Defarge offers practical consolation to Gaspard, the Marquis
tosses Defarge a second coin, which is at once tossed back.  "You
dogs!" says the Marquis, assuring the crowd that he'd like nothing
better than to crush the thrower of the coin beneath his coach
wheels.

Now, consider.  Does the Marquis' extra bit of callousness strike you
as one more mark of the privileged classes?  Or does he emerge as an
individual, if cruel, personality?

NOTE:  THE FOUNTAIN RUNS ITS COURSE Gaspard's baby is killed near the
communal fountain of Saint Antoine.  In the upcoming chapter two more
fountains flow--one in the Marquis' village, and the other at his
country house.  Dickens' use of water imagery follows a pattern.  The
Saint Antoine and village fountains are, first of all, centers of
neighborhood activity and sources of life-sustaining water.  But,
already, the Saint Antoine fountain suggests fate:  "The water of the
fountain ran, the swift river ran,...  all things ran their course."

Later the water swells into a sea (II, 22) and metamorphoses into
fire (II, 23).  Flood and fire, both natural disasters, become apt
metaphors for the raging destructiveness of the Revolutionary mobs.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 8

This "Monseigneur" is Monsieur the Marquis, driving through worn-out
country to his worn-out village.  Near the fountain the Marquis
recognizes a grizzled mender of roads who earlier had been gaping at
his carriage.  The Marquis has the little man brought forward.  In a
polite voice the mender of roads describes seeing a man--"white as a
spectre, tall as a spectre"--hanging from the drag of the carriage
(the drag was used to slow the vehicle as it went downhill).  Angered
at not being told of this sooner, the Marquis orders Gabelle, his
postmaster and tax collector, to keep an eye on the mender of roads.

The Marquis next rejects a desperate petition from a peasant woman
and drives on to his high-roofed chateau.  There he awaits a visitor
from England, a "Monsieur Charles."

NOTE:  A PUN Monsieur Gabelle's name contains a pun:  the gabelle was
the despised salt-tax, a leading cause of the Revolution.  Again,
notice how Dickens takes every opportunity to prepare you for the
Revolution in 1789.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 9

It's important to understand the action of Chapter 9 in order to
follow plot twists ahead.  What happens is basically simple:  Charles
Darnay (by now we've guessed he's the Marquis' nephew) arrives at the
chateau, a large stone building with carved faces decorating it.  He
and his uncle share an elegant dinner while renewing old hostilities.
The Marquis argues that repression is the only lasting philosophy,
and swears to uphold the honor of his family through cruelty.
Charles deplores his family's past wickedness, and renounces France
and the chateau, which will be his after the Marquis dies.  The men
part for the night.

Dawn arrives with a great commotion.  Another "stone face" has been
added to the many stone faces that already adorn the great house:
the Marquis is dead, stabbed in the heart.  A note is attached to the
killer's knife:  "Drive him fast to his tomb.  This, from JACQUES."

A straightforward and electrifying series of events, but you might
pay attention to several details for future reference.

Charles Darnay's father and the current Marquis were brothers--again,
on instance of doubles.  Darnay is certain that his father's time was
a wicked one.

Darnay is bound by his mother's dying words to administer the family
estate, and to do so mercifully.  The death of his father had left
Darnay and his uncle joint inheritors.

The Marquis asks Darnay if he knows any other French refugees in
England, particularly "a Doctor with a daughter." "Yes," answers
Darnay, and on the Marquis' face we see an evil smile.

The Marquis has fallen out of favor at court.  If he were better
connected, he might well attempt to imprison his nephew secretly with
a lettre de cachet.  You'll remember that the lettre is the same
"little instrument of correction" that sent Dr.  Manette to the
Bastille.  The Marquis seems quite familiar with its uses.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 10

A year has passed since the assassination of Charles Darnay's uncle.
His great stone chateau seems, to Darnay, "the mere mist of a dream."
Now employed successfully as a tutor of French language and
literature, Darnay decides to tell Dr.  Manette of his deep love for
Lucie.  Darnay asks one favor:  that the doctor put in a good word
for him, if, and only if, Lucie reveals she loves Darnay.

Noticeably shaken, Dr.  Manette finally promises Lucie to Darnay only
on the condition he is "essential to her perfect happiness." In a
mysterious but significant speech, the doctor states that anything
held against the man Lucie loves, "any fancies...  any
apprehensions," will be dissolved for her sake.

Darnay tries to reveal his true name and explain why he's in England.
Dr.  Manette stops him short, extracting the second of "Two
Promises":  Darnay swears not to tell his secrets until the morning
he marries Lucie.

Arriving home from errands, Lucie hears a "low hammering sound" from
her father's bedroom--the sound of shoemaking.  The encounter with
Charles Darnay has had the worst possible effect on Dr.  Manette,
throwing him into amnesia.  Lucie is terribly worried, but by walking
and talking with her father is able to restore his normal
consciousness.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTERS 11 AND 12

In the midst of gathering momentum, these two chapters provide a
pause.  Do you know people who consider their friendship a valuable
prize?  Then perhaps you'll smile at Stryver's belief that his wish
to marry Lucie does her great honor.

For readers familiar with most of Dickens' work, A Tale of Two Cities
seems untypical.  These readers cite the novel's rapid pace, lighter
than usual detail, and sparing use of humor and dialogue as
departures from Dickens' usual style.  These two chapters, however,
come closer to "traditional" Dickens.  Their contribution to the plot
is relatively small, and they depend on humorous dialogue (such as
Stryver's sudden reversal at the end of Chapter 12).

Yet Stryver the man isn't especially humorous.  Dickens describes him
sharply, in terms of his size and obnoxious "shouldering" ability.
Stryver is the new man, making social and financial strides in
Victorian society; he's a "fellow of delicacy" in no one's eyes but
his own.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 13

Stryver is out of town for the summer, and Sydney Carton's spirits
have sunk to an all-time low.

One day in August he calls on Lucie Manette to reveal his secret:  he
loves her, but realizes she can never love him in return.  Carton
admits that Lucie's pity and understanding have had a good effect on
him.  Still he can never change his "self-wasting" ways.

Agitated and weeping, Lucie promises not to tell anyone of Carton's
declaration, the "last confidence" of his life.

As he leaves, Carton foresees Lucie married and with a child.  He
swears he would do anything, even give his life, to keep a life Lucie
loved beside her.

NOTE:  DICKENS' SENTIMENTALITY Dickens has been accused of excessive
sentimentality, especially when one of his young heroines is
involved.  Sydney Carton's address to Lucie Manette is a case in
point:  he praises her "pure and innocent breast," and exclaims, "God
bless you for your sweet compassion!"

Dickens means us to take this chapter seriously.  Faced with his
intentions, you should decide whether the emotional fireworks help or
hinder the novel.  On one hand, you can accept Carton as a man of
extremes--a self-destructive alcoholic--who can carry off extravagant
speeches.  On the other hand, his dramatics may impress you as a
little overdone.  You may also succumb to modern taste, and grow
somewhat weary of Lucie's unchanging goodness.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 14

At last we're let in on Jerry Cruncher's secret profession.  He
unearths recently buried bodies and sells them to doctors for medical
research.

Leaving their post outside Tellson's, Cruncher and son join a funeral
procession.  The crowd has turned out to jeer, for the dead man,
Roger Cly, was an unpopular spy at the Old Bailey.  (You met Cly at
Darnay's trial--he was the faithless servant.) Cly has one proper
mourner, who flees the growing mob.  The uncontrolled crowd riots on
to Cly's graveside, gradually dispersing.  Observing that Cly was "a
young 'un and a straight made 'un," Jerry Cruncher visits a surgeon
on his way back to Tellson's.

That night Cruncher and two companions trudge to the graveyard, with
young Jerry following secretly at a distance.  Through young Jerry's
fearful eyes we watch the men dig up Cly's grave and apply a large
corkscrewlike device to the coffin.  Young Jerry has seen enough;
thoroughly terrified, he races home.

The next morning Cruncher is out of sorts.  He beats his wife,
accusing her of praying against his "honest trade." Cruncher has
turned no profits on the night's "fishing expedition." (We're not
told what he turned up until Book III.)

NOTE:  A MOB SCENE A London mob escorts Roger Cly's coffin to its
grave.  Most of the participants have no idea what they're jeering
and rioting; any excuse for breaking windows and looting taverns
suffices.  This mob is tame compared to those you'll meet in Paris,
but the scene is a prelude to the unbridled violence to come.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 15

This is a dramatic chapter of murder and sworn revenge.  The scene
has shifted to Saint Antoine and the Defarge wine shop, where secret
activity is in the air.  Defarge arrives with a little mender of
roads, introducing him to the shop patrons as "Jacques," the code
word for a revolutionary sympathizer.

Defarge leads the little man up to the very garret that once housed
Dr.  Manette.  There, before an audience of Jacques One, Two, and
Three (the same men who earlier surveyed the doctor through chinks in
the door), the little mender of roads vividly recounts the story of
Gaspard.  The killer of Monsieur the Marquis, Charles Darnay's uncle,
has been put to death.  Soldiers drove him to the prison on the crag,
then hung him on a forty-foot gallows above the town fountain.
Gaspard hangs there still, frightening away the people, and casting a
shadow that seems to strike across the earth.

Defarge and his fellow Jacques confer.  Defarge announces that "the
chateau and all the race" are "registered, as doomed to destruction."
The keeper of the register?  None other than Madame Defarge, who
knits a record of all those condemned to die for their crimes.  Into
Madame Defarge's register now go the descendants of the dead Marquis.
Think of the implication:  the only descendant you've met is Charles
Darnay.

His duty carried out, the provincial mender of roads makes a day trip
with the Defarges to the great royal palace at Versailles.  The
Defarges' purpose is political indoctrination.  They teach the mender
of roads to recognize the rich and powerful he'll one day destroy.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 16

A spy infiltrates the Defarges' wine shop.  John Barsad is now
working for the French monarchy.  As Barsad enters, Madame Defarge
pins a rose in her headdress, warning off the people of Saint
Antoine.  Barsad praises the house cognac, trying to sound out the
Defarges on Gaspard's death.  How has Saint Antoine reacted?  Madame
and Monsieur Defarge answer the spy's questions politely but coldly.
All the while Madame is knitting the name Barsad into her register of
the doomed.

Barsad does score one telling point.  When he mentions that Lucie
Manette is about to marry Charles Darnay, nephew of the murdered
Marquis, Defarge starts noticeably.

After Barsad leaves, Defarge expresses surprise that Lucie is about
to marry a man marked for death.  He hopes destiny will keep Darnay
out of France.  For her part, Madame Defarge feels no sympathy.
"Still Knitting" reveals her as stronger and more unshakable than
ever, untiringly patient for her day of justice.  At nightfall she
moves among the women of Saint Antoine--each one knitting--spreading
her "missionary" creed of vengefulness.

NOTE:  LIFE OF A "SAINT" Saint Antoine has come into its own as a
personification, a character in the story.  In the last chapter the
arrival of Defarge and the mender of roads lights a "kind of fire in
the breast" of the suburb; here, when Barsad leaves the wine shop,
"the Saint took courage to lounge in."

The notion of a lifelike "saint" welds the citizens of Saint Antoine
into one, a collective force.  An appropriate effect, since these
people will soon be acting as part of a single, unreasoning entity:
a mob.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTERS 17 AND 18

The marriage between Lucie Manette and Charles Darnay has deep
consequences for Dr.  Manette.

The night before the wedding Dr.  Manette seems reconciled to losing
his daughter.  Not that he's losing her entirely; she and Charles
Darnay will be living in the Soho house.  The doctor and Lucie sit
beneath their old plane tree, where for the first time since Darnay's
trial he talks of his imprisonment.  Lucie is troubled, but her
father assures her he's recalling his old captivity only as a way of
"thanking God for my great happiness."

The actual wedding day brings a complete turnaround.  As soon as the
couple drive off on their honeymoon, Dr.  Manette lapses into
amnesia.  He doggedly begins making shoes.  Jarvis Lorry and Miss
Pross try without success to bring him back around, and the ninth
evening Lorry despairingly observes that the shoemaker's hands have
never been so skillful.

NOTE:  Can we isolate what's causing the doctor's amnesia?  Partly,
separation from Lucie--ever since their meeting in Paris father and
daughter have been constantly together.  But our most telling clue to
Dr.  Manette's behavior is the closed-door meeting he held with
Charles Darnay just before the wedding.  Recall that Darnay promised
to reveal his true name, and reason for living in England, on his
wedding morning.  There's a connection between Charles Darnay's
family, and Dr.  Manette's long period of darkness in the Bastille.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 19

On the tenth morning after Lucie's wedding, the doctor regains his
memory.  Jarvis Lorry awakes to find his patient normally dressed and
reading, yet all is not normal.  The doctor thinks that only a day
has passed, and his hands, stained from shoemaking, trouble him.
With the confidentiality and tact developed from his years as a "man
of business," Lorry approaches the doctor about what should be done.
Lorry is careful to refer to Dr.  Manette in the third person.  As
you may remember, he used the same third-person tactic back in 1775,
explaining the doctor's sudden "resurrection" to Lucie.

Believing his worst symptoms have been conquered, Dr.  Manette
reluctantly allows his shoemaker's bench to be destroyed.  Lorry and
Miss Pross wait until the doctor has left to join the honeymooners,
then they hack the bench to pieces and burn it.  Dickens' description
of the process makes the faithful friends look like ritual murderers.
Indeed, Miss Pross and Lorry almost feel like accomplices in crime.

With this sinister description of innocence that looks like guilt,
Dickens may be telling us that it's often hard to tell reality and
unreality apart.  Things aren't what they seem.  On the other hand,
Dickens may simply be adding to the thickening atmosphere of
impending violence.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 20

On a visit to the newlyweds, Sydney Carton takes Charles Darnay aside
and asks two favors:  that Darnay forget the night of his Old Bailey
trial, when Carton was drunk and rude; and that Carton be allowed to
come and go in the Darnay household.

Darnay agrees to both requests.  Later he refers to Carton as
"careless and reckless." This sparks an impassioned declaration from
Lucie that Carton is capable of great things.

Whose assessment of Carton are we to accept?  Dickens endorses
Lucie's motive, if not her conclusion, when he echoes earlier praise
for her "sweet compassion." As for Carton, the jury is still
out--he's emerging as a complicated figure.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 21

The first half of the chapter, set in London, may remind you of the
passage-of-time sequences in old movies:  you can almost see the
pages dropping off the calendar.  Lucie establishes a calm, happy
home for her husband, father, and daughter, little Lucie.  A son
dies--not tragically, but with a radiant smile.  Sydney Carton drops
in six times a year, and little Lucie establishes a "strange
sympathy" with him.  Stryver the lawyer marries a rich widow, and is
rejected in attempts to have her three dull sons tutored by Darnay.

In all, Dickens advances the action about seven years, to an evening
in mid-July 1789.  Jarvis Lorry is visiting the Darnays, very
concerned about unrest in Paris.

Notice that the echoing footsteps of II, 6--"Hundreds of People"--are
back.  In the first half of the chapter some are harmless, including
the tread of Lucie's child.  But as the chapter shifts orientation
toward Paris, the footsteps grow menacing, and then "headlong, mad,
and dangerous."

July 14, 1789:  Saint Antoine and Paris rise in rebellion at last.
Led by Defarge, thousands storm the Bastille, the hated symbol of
government oppression.  Seven dazed prisoners are released, seven
officials' heads are paraded on pikes.  One of the heads, belonging
to the governor of the prison, has been hacked off by Madame Defarge.

In the tumult Defarge orders one old jailer to lead him and
revenge-hungry Jacques Three to One Hundred and Five, North Tower,
Dr.  Manette's old cell.  The wine keeper searches the cell
thoroughly.  We don't learn what, if anything, he discovers.

The running-water imagery Dickens introduced earlier has been
expanded.  The Bastille attackers are a "sea of black and threatening
waters...  whose forces were yet unknown." More water follows, as the
endless waves of rioting Parisians spill into the next chapter.

NOTE:  REVOLUTION!  The taking of the Bastille on July 14, 1789
kicked off the long-simmering French Revolution.  Conquering the
hated fortress-prison was a heady victory for the people, and July
14, Bastille Day, remains a national holiday in France, the
equivalent of our July 4.

Dickens' account of the battle, and of the massacre of old Foulon in
the next chapter, owe much to Thomas Carlyle's description in The
French Revolution (see Sources).

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 22

The slaughter of old Foulon, a notorious oppressor of the masses, and
of his son-in-law are depicted graphically.

NOTE:  What is Dickens' attitude toward the mob he so vividly
creates?  Consider several possibilities.

The "day's bad work" revolts him.  Dickens characterizes Foulon as an
old man, begging pathetically for his life.  The Revolutionary women
who desert their children and aged parents to snatch up weapons, are
worse, even, than the men.  The Vengeance (the complimentary name
bestowed on the plump wife of a starved grocer) seems especially
unsympathetic.

The mob enthralls Dickens.  He writes vigorously because he's
involved, and he puts himself in the place of the shrieking women and
stern men.  The mob is a projection of Dickens' dark side, his
feelings of political and social powerlessness.

Dickens deplores the mob's action, yet he sympathizes with their
plight.  The chapter's final scenes paint a picture of wailing,
hungry children waiting for their parents' return from the slaughter.
The men and women do their meager shopping, as usual.  There is human
fellowship, and there are lovers who, with "such a world around them
and before them, loved and hoped."

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 23

The burning of the Marquis' great chateau--done by outsiders but
supported by all the villagers--marks a shift in Dickens' imagery.
The Revolutionary "sea" has changed to rising fire.  As the chateau
flares, molten lead and iron boil in the fountain's marble basin.
The water has been consumed.

Notice how the fire obliterates all traces of Charles Darnay's dead
uncle:  a stone face that resembles his is obscured, "as if it were
the face of the cruel Marquis, burning at the stake." The villagers
believe that the stone faces on the chateau have changed twice.
After the Marquis was stabbed, they were faces of pain; when Gaspard
died, they bore "avenging looks." The obliteration of these stone
faces marks the end of the Marquis' influence.  In a way, the fire is
his second death--it shows that the Marquis' soldiers and
functionaries have finally lost their power to protect his interests.

Also notice Dickens' care, during this fiery night, to add plot
details.  He tells us that Gabelle, the chief functionary, has been
collecting few taxes these days, and no rent at all.  Even so, the
angry villagers surround Gabelle's house, hoping for vengeance.  The
tax collector is fortunate to survive the night.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 24

August 1792.  Three years have passed since the storming of the
Bastille.  France has overthrown its monarchy and many
nobles--collectively referred to as "Monseigneur"--have fled the
country.  These emigrants gather regularly at Tellson's Bank in
London to mourn their past glory and curse the new order in France.
One day a letter arrives at the bank for "Monsieur heretofore the
Marquis St.  Evremonde," that is, for Charles Darnay.  St.  Evremonde
is Darnay's true name.  He confided it to Dr.  Manette on his wedding
morning, and to no one else.

The mysterious letter has come from Gabelle, the tax collector.
Following Darnay's instructions, Gabelle had eased the burden on the
villagers; he has been arrested nonetheless and sent to L'Abbaye
prison in Paris, charged with the crime of working for an emigrant.
At once, Darnay resolves to go to Gabelle's aid.  If you found
yourself in Darnay's place, would you make such a trip?  Readers have
taken three conflicting perspectives on Darnay's decision.

Darnay's return to strife-filled France is sheer foolishness, akin to
jogging through a minefield.  Darnay is so confident his good
intentions will protect him that he doesn't check out the current
situation in France, or consider that the people might feel hostile
toward any aristocrat, even a reformed one.

Courage, duty, and pride combine to send Darnay back to his homeland.
He has a duty to free Gabelle, and to dispose of his property once
and for all.  What's more, his pride is touched by the insults of
Stryver and the collected emigrants at Tellson's.  Finally, as a much
younger man than Jarvis Lorry, who is about to journey to Paris for
Tellson's, Darnay feels that he, too, should be brave enough to
handle the French situation.

Darnay is a tool of fate.  France is his destiny; he's drawn to the
violence there as if to a lodestone rock, or magnet.  Lucie's fantasy
of thundering footsteps is about to be realized.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 1

Darnay travels slowly across France with a government-imposed escort.
On arriving in Paris, he's promptly arrested under the terms of a
recent, antiemigrant decree.  Darnay's guard, Ernest Defarge,
recognizes him as Lucie's husband, but he resolutely withholds aid.

On the way to his cell in La Force prison, Darnay encounters a group
of imprisoned aristocrats.  Their refinement and good manners amid
filth and squalor make them seem ghostlike:  "the crowning unreality
of his long unreal ride." Here, finally, is a touch of sympathy in
Dickens' treatment of the French aristocracy, now on its way out.
Dickens seems genuinely to mourn the passing of aristocratic beauty,
stateliness, elegance, and wit.  Yet do you see a change in his
essential characterization of the ruling classes?  In power or out,
the aristocrats are a picture of unreality.  They don't mesh with
life's true conditions.

Placed in solitary confinement ("in secret"), Darnay paces off the
measurements of his cell.  His mind is full of disturbing thought
fragments--about Lucie, Dr.  Manette, and his recent strange journey.

NOTE:  THE GUILLOTINE France guillotined its first victim, a
highwayman, in 1792, but similar killing devices had been used
elsewhere since the late Middle Ages.  Though named for a French
doctor, J.  I.  Guillotin--who advocated their use on the grounds
that death by guillotine was virtually painless--the early
guillotines in France were actually built by a German.

Go forward a moment to Dickens' description of the guillotine at the
end of III, 4:  "It was the sign of the regeneration of the human
race.  It superseded the Cross." Here Dickens ironically invokes his
theme of resurrection, while pointing out that the Revolutionaries
strove to reduce the power of the church.  One radical even
introduced the worship of a Goddess of Reason.  In due course, he was
guillotined.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 2

Lucie and Dr.  Manette follow Darnay to Paris.  They burst in on a
surprised Jarvis Lorry, who knows nothing of Darnay's presence or
difficulties.

We're in the midst of the September Massacres (September 2-6, 1792)
when over a thousand prisoners in Paris were slaughtered.  The
murderers sharpen their weapons in the courtyard of Tellson's Paris
office, at a whirring grindstone.  Try comparing these blood-soaked
"ruffians" with the wine-soaked citizens in front of Defarge's wine
shop 17 years ago.  Don't the smears of blood resemble those earlier
smears of wine?  Dickens has set up a deliberate correspondence
between blood and wine.  It's one way he evokes the spirit of
Revolution.

Lucie, little Lucie, and Miss Pross spend the long, bloody night with
Jarvis Lorry, in his rooms above Tellson's headquarters.  Dr.
Manette leaves with a cheering crowd.  As a former Bastille prisoner,
the doctor has automatic prestige and influence with the masses.
He's confident that his authority will save Charles Darnay.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 3

In the morning Jarvis Lorry finds lodgings for Lucie and Miss Pross,
leaving them Jerry Cruncher as a bodyguard.  Dr.  Manette doesn't
return, but sends a note via Defarge that Darnay is safe.  Dr.
Manette, Defarge, his wife, and The Vengeance go together to deliver
a second note to Lucie, from Darnay himself.

The Defarges and The Vengeance cast a figurative shadow over Lucie
and her child.  The description is an alert that the Defarge trio
constitutes a threat.  As you should be coming to expect, Dickens
again divides his world into light and darkness.  Lucie, "the golden
thread," is falling into the power of her dark opposite, Madame
Defarge.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 4

The personal fortunes of Dr.  Manette and his family are contrasted
with the increasing agitation in France.  Though unable to free his
son-in-law, the doctor displays unforeseen strength.  His past
sufferings, previously the source of his weakness, now guarantee his
safety and give him endurance for supporting his dependents as
violence sweeps the country.  Dr.  Manette becomes inspecting
physician at three prisons, visiting Darnay weekly and becoming one
of the best-known men in Paris.  Any signs of past imprisonment that
now cling to him are positive; he's "a Spirit moving among mortals."

NOTE:  THE REIGN OF TERROR This phase of the Revolution began in
September 1793.  In the course of power struggles between various
factions, Marie Antoinette and thousands of others of high rank and
low were executed.  The "law of the Suspected," which Dickens
mentions, allowed for the denunciation of a broad range of people.
This law eventually brought down the extremists who framed it, ending
the Terror.

The "strong man of Old Scripture" is Samson, the name of the chief
executioner at the guillotine.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 5

The chapter's centerpiece is the wild Carmagnole, a street dance done
to a popular tune of the same name.  Pay attention to Dickens'
treatment of the Carmagnole.  If you've ever seen films or
reenactments of war dances, you may pick up similarities.

Charles Darnay's imprisonment has stretched to 15 months.  Each
afternoon Lucie stands across from La Force, hoping her husband may
catch a glimpse of her.  A little wood-sawyer, whom we knew formerly
as the little mender of roads, takes suspicious notice of Lucie's
comings and goings.  On a December afternoon, standing at her usual
post, Lucie first spots the Carmagnole and is terrified.

NOTE:  Look closely at these dancers, "delivered over to all
devilry," and again compare them with the innocents of years ago,
dancing in the spilled wine at Defarge's shop.  Dickens' use of mob
action and violence has led readers to claim that his gore is laid on
with a trowel.  In their view the book is dominated by jolting
tumbrils--the carts carrying victims to the guillotine--and dropping
heads.  As a result the French Revolution becomes a lunatic
bloodbath.  Its complex causes and far-reaching consequences never
appear.

These doubting readers raise an interesting question.  What does the
Revolution mean to Dickens, and for his novel?  Let's look at the
different possibilities.

1.  The events of 1789 and after provide a colorful historic canvas
for a story of individual courage and redemption.  According to this
view, Sydney Carton's final sacrifice is more significant than its
backdrop.

2.  Writing about violence is Dickens' method for exorcising personal
frustrations--he imagines himself participating in the slaughter.

3.  Revolutionary events conveniently fit the larger theme of fate.
As we know, Dickens drew many incidents from Thomas Carlyle's account
(see Sources).  Dickens also relied on Carlyle's philosophy that the
French nobility was doomed to fall, given its excesses.  In A Tale of
Two Cities Dickens adapts Carlyle's determinism--or belief in prior
causes--to fiction.  "All things run their course," he comments,
implying that upheaval can't be avoided.

4.  History provides ample opportunities for moralizing.  Dickens
upbraids the nobility for their evil ways, perhaps more strongly than
he does the mob.  Jump to Chapter 13 where the Terror is labeled a
"moral disorder," and to Chapter 15 where Dickens delivers his
ultimate moral message:  "Crush humanity out of shape once more,...
and it will twist itself into the same tortured forms." In other
words, cruelty begets cruelty.  There's the suggestion, too, that the
aristocracy got what it deserved.

5.  What better subject than a Revolution for preaching social
change?  Some readers have regarded A Tale as Dickens' manifesto for
a new order in England.  Others point out that it contains not one
concrete suggestion for reform.  Dickens advises that rulers and
ruled behave morally, without necessarily changing the established
order.  This second argument seems to be supported by Miss Pross.
She's an undeniably good woman, yet a loyal follower of the British
monarchy.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTERS 6 AND 7

Darnay's day in court comes at last.  He is freed by the Tribunal,
thanks to Dr.  Manette's efforts and prestige, and the testimony of
Gabelle.

"I have saved him," announces Dr.  Manette.  Is this a judgment you
should take as final?  Look at these signs that Dickens is already
undercutting Dr.  Manette's--and Charles Darnay's--"triumph."

The people carry Darnay home in a "wild dreamlike procession." They
are Darnay's supporters, but they don't seem like it to him.  Darnay
half-imagines he's in a tumbril headed for the guillotine.

Appearances aside, Darnay's cheering crowd is fickle.  Darnay well
knows that the same people, "carried by another current, would have
rushed at him" and torn him to pieces.

In the next chapter Dickens' hints and Lucie Darnay's "heavy fears"
are realized.  Darnay is retaken the night of his release.  A shocked
Dr.  Manette learns that Darnay's denouncers were the Defarges and
"one other," to be revealed the next day.

NOTE:  POLICE-STATE PSYCHOLOGY Readers have remarked on Dickens' deep
understanding of the atmosphere and mentality of a society ruled by
fear.  The night before Darnay's trial the jailer calls 23 names, yet
only 20 prisoners respond.  The missing three, dead, have already
been forgotten.  This is typical of a totalitarian society, in which
the individual sheds his or her importance.  Think of the mass graves
that characterize modern "terrors"--those carried out by Nazis, or
Latin-American death squads--and you have an idea of Dickens'
meaning.

Many of Darnay's fellow prisoners have a secret attraction to death:
"a wild infection of the wildly shaken public mind." This is an
insight into the mentality of a prison or police-state, in which
people have an irresistible urge to confess, to conform to the will
of the state.  (After Sydney Carton dies, you might want to return to
this passage, applying it not to politics, but to his personal
motives.)

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 8

Several strands of the plot meet here.  As you follow the
coincidences, keep in mind that Dickens had no shame in using them.
He felt that a well-drawn, unified atmosphere made coincidence appear
logical, even likely.

Miss Pross encounters her long-lost brother, Solomon, in a Parisian wine shop.

Sydney Carton, revealed as Lorry's secret guest, steps from the
shadows.  He and Jerry Cruncher, both present at Darnay's Old Bailey
trial 13 years before, identify Solomon Pross as John Barsad.  Having
overheard Barsad's conversation in the wine shop, Carton further
places him as a "Sheep of the Prisons," a spy.

In a conference between Barsad, Lorry, Carton, and Cruncher, Carton
suggests that Barsad has a co-spy in Paris, Roger Cly.  Barsad
protests that Cly is dead, but Cruncher backs Carton up.  He claims,
with an air of authority that Cly was never in his coffin at Saint
Pancras-in-the-Fields.  In Carton's words, Cly has "feigned death and
come to life again," an ironic description that puts Cly in the
category of "resurrected" characters along with Darnay and Dr.
Manette.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 9

We've reached the night before Charles Darnay's second trial.  Though
Darnay is in peril, the story's emphasis is shifting to Sydney
Carton.  While preparing to save Charles Darnay, Carton readies
himself to die.  He makes a deal with Barsad to gain access to the
prisoner, and he purchases some unnamed, potent drugs.  Prophetically
he tells Jarvis Lorry, "...my young way was never the way to age."

During an all-night tramp through the Paris streets, Carton recalls
at three separate moments the words read over his father's grave:  "I
am the Resurrection and the Life...."

Dickens closes the chapter with a four-star revelation:  at Darnay's
retrial, Defarge produces a paper he found five years ago in One
Hundred and Five, North Tower.  Dead silence falls on the court, as
all wait to hear Dr.  Manette's long-lost words.

Imagine you're one of the original readers of A Tale of Two Cities,
making weekly trips to the newsstand for the latest installment.  At
this point in the story you're hooked.  The novel's last few chapters
are remarkably compressed, filled to bursting with emotion and
events.  They're true page-turners.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 10

The contents of Dr.  Manette's journal are "the substance" of the
shadow that periodically falls on him.  We finally peer into the dark
cloud of his imprisonment.

Dr.  Manette's journal contains some of the most theatrical writing
in the novel.  The violated peasant girl shrieking, "My husband, my
father, and my brother!" then counting to twelve, her dying brother's
passionate curse--both episodes could be set with little alteration
on stage.

Depending on your taste, the theatrics may or may not appeal to you,
but try to appreciate Dickens' skill in tying up plot ends.  You've
learned why Charles Darnay, as a member of the St.  Evremonde family,
threw his new father-in-law into amnesiac shock; you know the reason
behind Darnay's promises to his mother to treat his peasants fairly.

In the uproar following the reading of the journal and the
pronouncing of Darnay's death sentence, it's easy to forget that one
secret remains:  the identity of the young sister, the only surviving
member of the ill-used peasant family.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTERS 11 AND 12

The chapter titles, "Dusk" and "Darkness," refer not only to the time of day, but to the apparently darkening situation.

Lorry, Lucie, and Darnay himself are sure the death sentence will be
carried out.  Lucie even faints away in the courtroom.  (Many actions
in the novel mirror previous ones:  remember that Lucie has fainted
before in a courtroom where Darnay was on trial.) Now, Carton kisses
her, murmuring, "A life you love"--words from his earlier promise.
Dr.  Manette goes off alone, hoping to reverse the jury's decision.
Then Carton is off, with the "settled step" of a man who knows what
he's doing.

Notice that Carton has taken the role of calling the shots.  Who is
left to act besides Carton?  Lucie is prostrated by grief, Lorry is
old, Pross and Cruncher can't speak the language.  In Chapter 12 Dr.
Manette, the former bulwark, lapses into amnesia.  Only Carton
behaves forcefully, polishing his plan to "resurrect" Darnay.

A stop at the Defarge wine shop serves to make Carton's likeness to
Darnay known.  It's a precaution--Carton is planning for Darnay later
to pass as himself.  Pretending a poor command of French, Carton
learns of Madame Defarge's intentions to denounce Lucie, her child,
and Dr.  Manette.  Smiting her chest, Madame Defarge reveals that she
is the one survivor of "that peasant family so injured by the two
Evremonde brothers." Therese Defarge's all-consuming purpose is
vengeance.  She's as unreasoning and destructive as natural
phenomena.  When her husband gingerly suggests moderation, she
responds, "Tell the wind and the fire where to stop; not me!"

Carton has two more errands:  a last meeting with John Barsad in the
shadow of the prison wall, and a talk with Jarvis Lorry.  He and
Lorry are interrupted by the arrival of Dr.  Manette, piteously
crying for his shoemaker's bench.  The doctor had drawn all his
recent strength from his power to save Charles Darnay; now, with
Darnay doomed, Dr.  Manette is a defeated man.

Carton and Lorry make preparations for escape.  To avoid denunciation
from Madame Defarge--damning testimony to be supplied by the little
woodcutter--Lucie, her father, her daughter, and Lorry must leave
France at once.  They're to meet Carton at two o'clock in Tellson's
courtyard, and then flee.  Carton gives the proper exit papers to
Lorry for safekeeping; then he escorts the confused doctor back to
Lucie's house.  Looking up at her window, Carton bids farewell, a
reminder of the great love he holds in his heart.  Sydney Carton will
never see Lucie again.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 13

Charles Darnay prepares for the death he believes is coming, his
journey to "the boundless everlasting sea." Notice how Dickens'
depiction of water has evolved.  In the city and village fountains
water flowed as a source of life.  Later it overflowed, a symbol of
the destructive mob.  Now, for Darnay, water again means life,
everlasting life.

In the letters he writes to loved ones, Darnay never thinks to
include Carton.  Now that you know Carton will save Darnay's life,
what do you think of the omission?  It's irony, used by Dickens to
heighten his ending.  Darnay is amazed at Carton's sudden appearance,
two hours before his scheduled execution.  Darnay notices a great
change in Carton--"something bright and remarkable in his look"--and
fears he's seeing an "apparition."

Have you ever had an intuition that something, good or bad, was about
to happen to a friend or member of your family?  Darnay's fear for
Sydney Carton is intuitive.  About to die, Carton is indeed on his
way to the spirit world.  Powered by "supernatural" strength and
will, Carton orders Darnay to exchange clothes with him and copy a
letter he dictates to Lucie:  "If it had been otherwise..." (if,
presumably, Carton had married Lucie), "I should but have had so much
the more to answer for." By now Darnay's handwriting is trailing off:
Carton has been inconspicuously drugging his double.  Barsad comes to
carry Darnay's unconscious form to his family and waiting carriage.

When the jailer calls Darnay, Carton responds in his place.
Following the jailer to a large, dark room, he encounters a young
seamstress who had been imprisoned with Darnay in La Force.  Carton's
heart softens toward the innocent girl, and he comforts her.  The act
adds another dimension of nobility to his sacrifice.  The seamstress
realizes Carton is dying for another man, and asks to hold his "brave
hand."

NOTE:  A DRAMATIC ESCAPE To show the narrow escape of Lucie and her
party, Dickens shifts from third to first person:  "We strike into
the skirting mud"; "we are for getting out and running...." The
change of voice draws readers into the action.  You almost feel right
in the carriage.  Only one leading character is excluded from the
escaping coach and the fellowship implied by "we":  Sydney Carton,
the perpetual outsider.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 14

Fearing her husband may try to warn Dr.  Manette, Madame Defarge
plans to denounce Lucie and her father that very night.

Armed with concealed pistol and dagger, Madame Defarge sets off for
Lucie's house.  She hopes to catch her prey "in a state of mind to
impeach the justice of the Republic." In effect, any mourning Lucie
displayed for her husband would "impeach" the Republic's justice, and
dig her own grave.

Dickens portrays Madame Defarge as a strong, fearless, attractive
woman who's also a tigress.  While deploring her heartlessness,
Dickens seems fascinated by it.  His reluctant admiration is evident
when he says Madame's dark hair "looked rich under her coarse red
cap." Her walk has "the supple freedom of a woman who has habitually
walked...  on the brown sea-sand." When you finish the novel think
about Madame Defarge and Lucie Manette.  Which character do you
remember more vividly?  For some readers, Madame Defarge stands out.
Evil determination lends her enduring interest.

As Madame Defarge draws nearer, Miss Pross and Jerry Cruncher make
their own preparations for escaping France.  Cruncher repents of his
sins--body snatching and wife beating--but Miss Pross is too
preoccupied to understand him.  She and Cruncher are to follow
Lucie's party in a light carriage.  For the sake of good strategy,
Miss Pross arranges to meet Cruncher and their carriage at 3 o'clock
at the cathedral door.  He leaves--and Miss Pross faces Madame
Defarge alone.

How might you characterize the struggle between these two strong women?

LOVE VERSUS HATRED:  Miss Pross fights for her fiercely beloved
"Ladybird"; Madame Defarge fights from her consuming hatred of the
St.  Evremondes and their class.

LIFE VERSUS DEATH:  Madame Defarge's unannounced entrance causes Miss
Pross to drop a basin of water.  The spilled water, a life-force,
flows to meet Madame Defarge's feet, which have marched through "much
staining blood." The meeting of water with blood signals the
confrontation between life and death that follows.

BRITAIN VERSUS FRANCE:  The two women are very determined, but direct
opposites.  Each believes the other's nationality to be a weakness.
"You shall not get the better of me," announces Miss Pross.  "I am an
Englishwoman." Earlier in the story Miss Pross' self-proclaimed
Britishness has comic overtones.  Here it is deadly serious.

The struggle results in Madame Defarge's death by her own pistol.
Miss Pross meets Jerry on schedule, and they make their escape.  What
is the price of Miss Pross' victory?  She's rendered deaf forever.
We're left to speculate on what her deafness means.  For some
readers, it's a sober statement of the realities of life:  neither
love nor patriotism can ever triumph completely.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: CHAPTER 15

How do you respond to the death of Sydney Carton?  Many readers find
an undeniable sadness and impact.  Carton's final journey in the
rumbling death-cart is a kind of twist on the novel's opening journey
where Jarvis Lorry recalled a man to life.  Carton, too, has recalled
someone to life--Charles Darnay--but at the cost of riding to his own
death.

For the first time, Madame Defarge's chair at the guillotine is
empty, and her knitting lies untouched.  Madame Defarge's death has
ensured the safe escape of the Darnay family and friends, but it
cannot help Carton now.  Just before he dies, making the ultimate
sacrifice for Lucie, the words of the burial service pass once more
through his mind:  "I am the Resurrection and the Life...." Sacrifice
and resurrection:  Carton's death interweaves these two great themes
of the novel.

Let the power of Carton's act--and Dickens' skill in depicting
it--sink in.  Then, consider whether the novel's ending is truly
hopeful, or if it has pessimistic overtones.  The last few pages can
be read from both points of view.

Chances are you've heard the novel's famous closing words, "It is a
far, far better thing that I do, than I have ever done...." These
words end Sydney Carton's final prophetic vision in which all wrongs
are set right.  The vision is proof of a hopeful ending, proof that
Carton doesn't die in vain.  In it the current oppressors die on
their own guillotine; a beautiful France rises out of the ashes; Dr.
Manette recovers his sanity; and Lucie Darnay's son, named for
Carton, becomes an honored man who brings his own child to see the
place of Carton's sacrifice.  Through the act of fulfilling his old
promise to Lucie, Carton demonstrates that individual love can
triumph over a chaotic society--and the march of history.

But note how Dickens qualifies Carton's vision with the word "if." If
Carton's thoughts had been prophetic, they would have been the
hopeful ones recorded.

Jump briefly to the beginning of the chapter.  Compare Carton's
"sublime prophetic face" as he steps up to the executioner with the
tumbrils bringing the "day's wine" to the guillotine.  Tumbrils and
guillotine, Dickens tells us, are the inevitable result of humanity
crushed "out of shape" by cruel rulers.  The carts carrying the
doomed are identical in underlying wickedness to "the carriages of
absolute monarchs." Dickens labels the death-carts "changeless and
hopeless," which seems to contradict Carton's glowing forecast of a
beautiful France rising from the abyss.

How might you explain the apparent contradiction between the
chapter's gloomy opening and Carton's glorious vision at the end?
One school of readers holds that Dickens made his last pages hopeful
in order to please his readers.  Deep down he believed Carton's death
more inevitable than glorious, just as he believed that history was
determined or made inevitable by a society's actions.

A second group of readers charges Dickens with failing to achieve one
of his aims--tying the destiny of individuals with the progress of
history.  A happy life for the Darnays, these readers argue, wouldn't
guarantee a smooth road ahead for the French people.

As an independent reader, forming your own opinion on the novel's
ending, you may find yourself accepting parts of all of the above
views.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: GLOSSARY

L'ABBAYE Prison of the French monarchy, used by the Revolutionaries
to jail aristocrats.

BARMECIDE Member of a fictional Persian family (in The Arabian
Nights), who treated a beggar to a mock feast.  Dickens'
reference--"Barmecide room"--emphasizes that no dining ever occurred
at Tellson's.

BASTILLE French fortress used to confine state prisoners; the
Bastille was much hated by the people.

BEDLAM Shortened form of Bethlehem Hospital for the Insane.  In the
18th century visiting Bedlam was a popular London excursion; in our
own day the term has become general for lunacy or chaos.

CONCIERGERIE Prison attached to the Palace of Justice in Paris.
Marie Antoinette, Robespierre, and other famous prisoners of the
Revolution awaited execution here; between January 1793 and July 1794
nearly 2,600 prisoners left for the guillotine.

CONVULSIONISTS Group of French religious enthusiasts given to wild
dancing and fits; in fashion somewhat before the time Dickens
describes.

FLEET STREET  London newspaper and business district, well known to Dickens.

LA FORCE Old debtors' prison of Paris; during the Revolution it held
political offenders.

FURIES In Greek and Roman mythology, minor deities who relentlessly
pursued sinners.

GAZETTE Official government publication in England, containing
bankruptcy and other notices; to be "driven into the Gazette" is to
be published a bankrupt.

GORGON'S HEAD Reference to Medusa, the Gorgon, a monster of Greek
mythology.  All who looked at Medusa were turned to stone.  The hero
Perseus succeeded in cutting off her head.

HILARY TERM Sitting of the English High Court of Justice, extends
from January to just before Easter.

HOTEL DE VILLE  French term for any city hall; here, the Paris City Hall.

JACQUERIE Originally applied to a French peasant revolt in the Middle
Ages, the term came to mean any uprising of the common people.
Jacques was the old collective name for French peasants, which
Defarge and his revolutionary friends co-opt, proudly, as a password:
"How goes it, Jacques?"

LEONORA, BALLAD OF Ballad of Gothic horror, composed in 1773 and
popular among European romantics.

MICHAELMAS TERM Fall sitting of English High Court of Justice,
beginning after September 29 (the Feast of St.  Michael).

NEWGATE Infamous London prison, now demolished; held prisoners
awaiting trial at the Old Bailey, next door.

OLD BAILEY London court of law, remodeled into the Centre Criminal
Court, but still widely called "Old Bailey."

RANELAGH Suburban pleasure garden popular with mid-18th-century
Londoners, but falling out of favor when Stryver proposes inviting
Lucie Manette there.

SAINT ANTOINE Suburb (faubourg) of Paris that supported primitive
manufacturing; its impoverished residents were the backbone of the
Revolutionary mob.

SARDANAPALUS Greek name for king of ancient Assyria, made proverbial
by his lavish display of wealth.

SESSIONS Periodic sittings or meetings of English justices of the
peace; the Sessions deal with certain crimes and statutes.

SOHO  Cosmopolitan district of central London.

TEMPLE BAR London gateway dividing Fleet Street from the Strand; the
heads of executed traitors were displayed on it.  Designed by
Christopher Wren in 1670, Temple Bar was removed to a private estate
in 1878.

TOWER OF LONDON  Fortress where those imprisoned for treason awaited trial.

TUILERIES, PALACE OF Paris residence of the French kings, and hated
symbol of the monarchy.  Burnt down by French Revolutionaries of
1871.

TYBURN London gallows called "Tyburn tree," until 1783 for hanging
felons.  Public executions became festivals, drawing large crowds.

VAUXHALL GARDENS Popular suburban resort, opened in 1660, closed in
1859--the year A Tale of Two Cities was printed.

WALTON, IZAAK  Author of The Compleat Angler, 17th-century treatise on fishing.

WHITEFRIARS London district between Thames and Fleet Street, long a
haunt of fugitive debtors and criminals and so an appropriate address
for Jerry Cruncher, body snatcher.

A Tale of Two Cities...  was a sacrifice of all his [Dickens']
greatest gifts; and in my opinion it shows that those gifts--of
fantastic speech, of animistic description, of deeply absorbed
symbolic overtones--are essential to the success of his action.

-Angus Wilson,
The World of Charles Dickens, 1970

A TALE OF TWO CITIES: ON THE REVOLUTION

The one thing that everyone who has read A Tale of Two Cities
remembers is the Reign of Terror.  The whole book is dominated by the
guillotine--tumbrils thundering to and fro, bloody knives, heads
bouncing into the basket, and sinister old women knitting as they
watch.

...To this day, to the average Englishman, the French Revolution means
no more than a pyramid of severed heads. It is a strange thing that
Dickens, much more in sympathy with the ideas of the Revolution than
most Englishmen of his time, should have played a part in creating this
impression.

-George Orwell, "Charles Dickens," 1940


A TALE OF TWO CITIES: ON THE CHARACTERS

Of all the figures in the book Sydney Carton is the one who comes
nearest to being deeply realized and the one with whom Dickens
identified himself most closely.

-Edgar Johnson, Charles Dickens,
His Tragedy and Triumph, 1952

Each of the three men grouped about Lucie Manette is "recalled to
life." Her father regains his, on release from the Bastille; her
husband's life is restored by his deliverance from La Force; and
Carton finds his by seeking to lose it.

-K. J. Fielding, "Separation--and
A Tale of Two Cities," 1964

Madame Defarge is the ultimate personification of the revolution in A
Tale of Two Cities, and she is a being whom the uncontrolled desire
for revenge has turned into a monster of pure evil.  The final
struggle between her and Miss Pross is a contest between the forces
of hatred and of love.

-George Woodcock, Introduction to the
Penguin edition of A Tale of Two Cities, 1970

If A Tale of Two Cities is the story of an innocent bourgeois doctor
imprisoned by an unscrupulous elite, it is also the story of the
responsible young aristocrat who disinherits himself out of disgust
at his own class and tries to atone by a life of hard work.  When we
see Darnay as the representative of a class that needs to atone an
historical culpability, he acquires new interest and depth.

-Geoffrey Thurley, The Dickens Myth:
Its Genesis and Structure, 1976

                               THE END